“…If K is a number field and X = Spec(K), then Φ ℓ is a Galois representation of K arising from the smooth projective variety Y /K and the largeness of Γ ℓ in G ℓ (Q ℓ ) for ℓ ≫ 0 follows from the remarkable conjectures of Hodge, Grothendieck, Tate, Mumford-Tate, and Serre [Se94,§11], see also [HL15a,§5]. The prototypical result in this direction is due to Serre [Se72], which states that for any non-CM elliptic curve Y , the monodromy Γ ℓ on H 1 is GL 2 (Z ℓ ) for all sufficiently large ℓ, see also [Ri76,Ri85], [Se85],[BGK03, BGK06, BGK10], [Ha11] for certain abelian varieties; [HL15b] for arbitrary abelian varieties; [Se98] for abelian representations; [HL14] for type A representations; and partial results [La95a], [Hu14] for arbitrary varieties. To get large Galois monodromy, one always needs handles on the invariants of V ℓ and Vℓ .…”