“…There is more to the construction of ethnic identity than traditional cultural markers, since, as Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, and Vedder (2001) state, "Ethnic identity is a dynamic construct that evolves and changes in response to developmental and contextual factors" (p. 496). Two other studies specifically examine the Kurds from Iraq (Gardner, Polyzoi, & Rampaul, 1996;Miraftab, 2000). Gardner, Polyzoi, and Rampaul (1996) deal with individual variables that influenced the progress of immigrants from Iraqi Kurdistan and Bosnia who arrived in Manitoba in 1992 in ESL programs.…”