Indonesian aquaculture futures—identifying interventions for reducing environmental impacts

Abstract

Indonesia is the world's second largest producer and third largest consumer of seafood. Fish is therefore essential to the nation, both financially and nutritionally. Overfishing and the effects of climate change will, however, limit future landings of capture fisheries, so any increases in future seafood production will need to come from aquaculture. The ecological effects of aquaculture are dependent upon the choice of species, management, and where it is sited. In the present study we use life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate how possible interventions and innovations can mitigate environmental impacts related to the aquaculture sector's growth. The mitigation potential of six interventions were also quantified, namely (1) FCR reductions for whiteleg shrimp, carp, and tilapia;(2) sustainable intensification of milkfish and Asian tiger shrimp polyculture; (3) shifting groupers from whole fish diets to pellets; (4) favoring freshwater finfish over shrimp; (5) renewable electricity; and (6) reduced food waste and improved byproduct utilization. If all six interventions are implemented, we demonstrate that global warming, acidification, eutrophication, land occupation, freshwater use, and fossil energy use could be reduced by between 28% and 49% per unit of fish. The addition of many innovations that could not be quantified in the present study, including innovative feed ingredients, suggest that production could double within the current environmental footprint. This does not, however, satisfy the expected 3.25-fold increase under a business-as-usual scenario, neither does it satisfy the government's growth targets. We therefore also explore possible geographical areas across Indonesia where aquaculture expansions and ecological hotspots may conflict. Conclusively, we advocate more conservative production targets and investment in more sustainable farming practices. To accelerate the implementation of these improvements, it will be central to identify the most cost-effective aquaculture interventions.

Scenarios for Global Aquaculture and Its Role in Human Nutrition

“…Aquaculture in Indonesia is similarly diverse and the Indonesian seafood sector is highly connected to global food systems (Gephart and Pace 2015). Current practices and growth goals for the sector often do not account for environmental boundaries (Henriksson et al 2019), but the government has made commitments to improving both environmental performance and nutritional sensitivity of the sector.…”

Interventions for improving the productivity and environmental performance of global aquaculture for future food security

“…Improving production systems, management practices, and genetic strains could reduce FCR and environmental impacts by roughly 25%. 12,76 Achieving these gains will require access to tailored commercial feed for the most important species (e.g., carps) and novel feed ingredients. Market access and consumer acceptance will also be essential for promoting fish relying on lower-trophic level diets.…”

“…Different aquaculture species have different physiologies and metabolic characteristics, and consequently have diverse efficiencies and environmental impact profiles under different culture conditions. 5,12 Many species are filter feeders, while the nutritional needs of fed species range from largely herbivorous to almost exclusively carnivorous. Meanwhile, optimal farming conditions depend on appropriate temperature and oxygen and salinity levels.…”

“…109 Alongside species selection, increasing edible yields and reducing food loss and waste are arguably the most efficient short-term interventions for improving the environmental performance of aquatic foods, as less needs to be produced in the first place. 12 Overall, edible yields and what actually is being eaten can range from 10% for some bivalves to 100% for some small-sized fish and sea cucumbers. 109,110 ll The FAO (2011) estimates that 35% of all seafood is lost or wasted worldwide.…”

“…6 Aquaculture is highly diverse, comprising numerous species and systems with varied environmental impacts and nutritional values, 5,[9][10][11] ranging from marine bivalves, which require minimal input during grow-out, to filter-feeding freshwater finfish species (e.g., silver and bighead carps), to omnivorous finfish and crustaceans that commonly rely on plant-based feed with partial inclusion of fishmeal and fish oil, to carnivorous finfish, including tuna, which can consume up to 20 times their weight in wild fish. 5,[12][13][14] Historically dominated by extensive and improved-extensive pond-based farming systems sometimes supplemented with agricultural by-products, the aquaculture sector has, over the past few decades, been increasingly steered toward intensification through the use of pelleted feed in marine, brackish-water, and freshwater environments. 15,16 These pelleted feeds are generally produced from a mix of fishmeal and fish oil, agricultural products, animal by-products, and micronutrients, often tailored to support the nutritional needs of individual species.…”