Indoor Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons—Relationship to Ambient Air, Risk Estimation, and Source Apportionment Based on Household Measurements

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are key components of particulate matter (PM) in terms of the toxicological risk of polluted air. Although commonly monitored in ambient air, PAHs are also present in indoor air, making the measurement of indoor PAH content essential for understanding the health risks associated with indoor environments. This study presents findings from measurements conducted across 37 households where children resided, using 7-day sampling campaigns to collect PM1. The health risk assessment methods are detailed herein, along with a source apportionment analysis to explore the associations with potential sources and differences from ambient air concentrations. Additionally, the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was calculated to assess long-term health risks associated with exposure to indoor PAHs. The results showed consistently higher PAH concentrations in outdoor environments (from 0.079 ng m−3 for dibenzo(a,h)anthracene to 1.638 ng m−3 for benzo(b)fluoranthene) compared to indoor environments (from 0.029 ng m−3 for dibenzo(a,h)anthracene to 0.772 ng m−3 for indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene), suggesting significant transfer of PAHs from outdoor to indoor air. The source apportionment analysis indicated that traffic emissions, fossil fuel combustion, and residential heating were the predominant sources of PAHs in both environments, with the concentration of indoor PAHs largely influenced by gasoline and liquid fossil fuel combustion. The diagnostic ratios supported these findings, with coal and biomass as additional sources impacting outdoor PAH levels. The ILCR analysis revealed that the exposure levels for both children (indoors at 1.78 × 10−5, outdoors at 1.92 × 10−6) and adults (indoors at 1.15 × 10−5, outdoors at 1.24 × 10−6) remained below the U.S. EPA’s risk threshold, suggesting limited carcinogenic risk under typical household conditions in this study. These findings emphasize the complexity of PAH distribution between indoor and outdoor environments, illustrating how urban outdoor pollution sources contribute to indoor air quality and highlighting the relevance of effective air quality management strategies.