Inequalities in higher education in low‐ and middle‐income countries: A scoping review of the literature

Abstract

Motivation Higher education is regarded as a key instrument to enhance socioeconomic mobility and reduce inequalities. Recent literature reviews have examined inequalities in the higher education systems of high‐income countries, but less is known about the situation in low‐ and middle‐income countries, where higher education is expanding fast. Purpose The article reviews the academic literature on higher education in low‐ and middle‐income countries using a research framework inspired by social justice and capability approaches. It considers the financial, sociocultural, human and political resource domains on which people draw, and how they relate to access, participation and outcomes in higher education. Methods A literature search for studies explicitly discussing in‐country inequalities in higher education revealed 22 publications. Substantial knowledge gaps remain, especially regarding the political (and decision‐making) side of inequalities; the ideologies and philosophies underpinning higher education systems; and the linkages between resource domains, both micro and macro. Findings The review highlights key elements for policy‐makers and researchers: (1) the financial lens alone is insufficient to understand and tackle inequalities, since these are also shaped by human and other non‐financial factors; (2) sociocultural constructs are central in explaining unequal outcomes; and (3) inequalities develop throughout one’s life and need to be considered during higher education, but also before and after. The scope of inequalities is wide, and the literature offers a few ideas for short‐term fixes, such as part‐time and online education. Policy implications Inclusive policy frameworks for higher education should include explicit goals related to (in)equality, which are best measured in terms of the extent to which certain actions or choices are feasible for all. Policies in these frameworks, we argue, should go beyond providing financial support, and also address sociocultural and human resource constraints and challenges in retention, performance and labour market outcomes. Finally, they should consider relevant contextual determinants of inequalities.

Equity in higher education of Nepal

“…Likewise, educated parents have such a social network that is supportive of their children to know and understand the importance of pursuing HE. It is also evident that the parents with (post) secondary education experience are more likely to create a learning environment for their children to enable acquiring HE (Reinders et al, 2020). As many Dalit parents have lower or no educational attainment and no understanding of the importance of HE, they are less likely to encourage their children to attain higher education.…”

“…The HE policy 2015 envisioned to ensure online/digital education for the students who do not have access to universities physically. However, the students having poor schooling and inadequate skills to handle digital technology significantly contribute to the quality educational outcomes (Reinders et al, 2020). In Nepal, such studies and analyses have not been made which may lead to ineffective digital and online education for students that are geographically marginalized.…”

“…Even the existing literature fails to explain why certain individuals or groups have an unequal representation in HE and how this links with the career outcome. Reinders et al (2020) further explain only some literature outlining HE inequalities in different stages, from access to career outcome which suggest inclusive HE to focus beyond economic factor and must also include socio-cultural political human factors. The authors discuss the macrolevel factors contributing to inequalities in HE that shape students" opportunities and capabilities: (1) economic and infrastructural constraints and (2) position of education in the global market.…”

“…First, the high socio-economic return is not possible by the primary and secondary graduates only but needs to be substantiated by the HE graduates, and inclusive higher education is essential to ensure the participation and contribution of all, irrespective of their differences (Reinders et al, 2020).…”

“…Despite an increased focus on HE in recent decades, there is a lack of concern and research on the existence of inequalities in HE in terms of access, retention, and its linkage to career outcomes (Reinders et al, 2020). Even the existing literature fails to explain why certain individuals or groups have an unequal representation in HE and how this links with the career outcome.…”