“…For example, mothers parenting stress scores were positively associated with intrusiveness, punitiveness and insensitivity, and negatively associated with responsiveness and cognitive stimulation (Kang, 2006;Whiteside-Mansell et al, 2007). Further, parent-child interactions are more often disrupted by influences external to the interaction when parenting stress levels are high compared with low (Blankenhorn, 1995;Crnic, Greenberg, Ragozin, Robinson, & Basham, 1983;Hetherington & Stanley-Hagan, 1997;McCarty, Zimmerman, Digiuseppe, & Christakis, 2005;Molfese et al, 2010;Whipple & Webster-Stratton, 1991), reducing opportunities for effective linguistic and cognitive stimulation (Nievar & Luster, 2006). Farver and colleagues found that mothers' higher levels of parenting stress predicted significantly lower language scores and poorer social functioning in their children (Farver, Xu, Eppe, & Lonigan, 2006); these authors suggest that parenting stress dampens parents' abilities to provide a supportive environment for children's developing school readiness skills.…”