Infectious Agents Associated with Head and Neck Carcinomas

Abstract

In addition to traditional risk factors such as smoking habits and alcohol consumption, certain microbes also play an important role in the generation of head and neck carcinomas. Infection with high-risk human papillomavirus types is strongly associated with the development of oropharyngeal carcinoma, and Epstein-Barr virus appears to be indispensable for the development of non-keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx. Other viruses including torque teno virus and hepatitis C virus may act as co-carcinogens, increasing the risk of malignant transformation. A shift in the composition of the oral microbiome was associated with the development of oral squamous cell carcinoma, although the causal or casual role of oral bacteria remains to be clarified. Conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde, a mutagenic compound, by members of the oral microflora as well as by fungi including Candida albicans and others is a potential mechanism that may increase oral cancer risk. In addition, distinct Candida spp. also produce NBMA (N-nitrosobenzylmethylamine), a potent carcinogen. Inflammatory processes elicited by microbes may also facilitate tumorigenesis in the head and neck region.

Detection of Interleukin 6 (IL-6) antigen in the head and neck carcinoma cells

“…In addition, the role of human papilloma virus (HPV) has been implicated as a possible cofactor, but the mechanism of action of this virus at HNSCC pathogenesis (in contrast to cervical carcinoma) still not exactly understood [43]. Also, the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) seems to be somehow involved (at least for the development of SCC at nasopharynx), along with the Torque teno (TTV) and hepatitis C (HCV) viruses, which all may act as possible co-carcinogens increasing the risk of malignant transformation [44,45].…”

Expression of Epstein–Barr virus among oral potentially malignant disorders and oral squamous cell carcinomas in the South Indian tobacco‐chewing population

“…Other risk factors include viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, electrogalvanic reaction, radiation, genetics, immunosuppression, and malnutrition (9). A shift in the composition of the oral microbiome, conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde, a mutagenic compound by members of the oral microflora, in addition to inflammatory processes elicited by microbes may facilitate tumorigenesis in the head and neck region (10). Some viruses are strongly associated, while others are less frequently implicated in malignant neoplasia of squamous epithelia, and it may depend on others cofactors for their carcinogenic effects.…”

“…Other risk factors include viral, bacterial, and fungal infections, electrogalvanic reaction, radiation, genetics, immunosuppression, and malnutrition . A shift in the composition of the oral microbiome, conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde, a mutagenic compound by members of the oral microflora, in addition to inflammatory processes elicited by microbes may facilitate tumorigenesis in the head and neck region .…”

Oropharyngeal Candidiasis in Patients Undergoing Radiotherapy for Head and Neck Cancer: Literature Review

“…Web of Science presented 2 articles and Pubmed presented 7 publications. Three of them were excluded, because one was duplicate among databases 11 , the other one is writing in Chinese 12 and the last one is a book chapter with a different thematic from that proposed in this study 13 . Thus, only eight articles were found in this search, showing the scarcity of studies in this research field.…”