Influence of contraceptive pill and menstrual cycle on serum lipids and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations.

Demacker, P.N.M.; Rr, Schade; Stalenhoef, A.F.H.; Stuyt, P.M.J.; Laar, A. Van't

doi:10.1136/bmj.284.6324.1213

Cited by 47 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 20 publications

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“…45 With a proper study design, however, this is not the case. In our study different women entered the trial at different points of their cycle; moreover, the diets were fed in random sequence.…”

Section: Gender-specific Effectsmentioning

confidence: 95%

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Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men.

Zock

Vries

Katan

1994

Arterioscler Thromb

247

146

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The cholesterol-raising effect of dietary saturated fatty acids is largely accounted for by lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids. Dairy fat is a major source of myristic acid, and palm oil is especially rich in palmitic acid. Myristic acid is suspected of being much more cholesterolemic than palmitic acid, but direct comparisons have been lacking. We therefore fed 36 women and 23 men three diets that differed from each other in palmitic, oleic, and myristic acid content by about 10% of total energy. We used palm oil, high-oleic acid sunflower oil, and a specially produced high-myristic acid fat to achieve these differences. Each diet was consumed for 3 weeks in random order. Mean serum cholesterol was 4.53 mmol/L on the high-oleic acid diet, 4.96 mmol/L on the palmitic acid diet, and 5.19 mmol/L on the myristic acid diet (/'<.0001 for all comparisons). Myristic acid raised low-density upoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 0.11 mmol/L, high-density R educing saturated fat (and cholesterol) intake is the therapy of choice in the treatment of moderate hypercholesterolemia and an important adjunct to drug therapy in the treatment of severe hypercholesterolemia.1 Restriction of saturated fatty acids in the diet is more effective than limiting total fat consumption.2 However, saturates with different chain lengths may differ in their cholesterol-raising effect. Lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), and palmitic acid (C16:0) are thought to increase cholesterol levels, whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has little or no effect.3 7 In experimental animals, saturated fatty acids raise plasma cholesterol through downregulation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor activity and subsequent accumulation of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) in plasma and increased LDL production from its precursor, very-lowdensity lipoprotein (VLDL). 8 -9 These effects are seen with lauric, myristic, and palmitic acids but not with medium-chain saturates (C6:0, C8:0, and C10:0) or stearic acid. 10 In humans lauric acid is less potent than palmitic acid in raising total cholesterol and LDL-(34,11,12 Myristic acid and palmitic acid together make up about 25% to 30% of the fat in Western diets (D. Kromhout, unpublished data, 1988), but their relative cholesterol-raising potencies have not been clearly defined in humans. Meta-analyses of dietary trials that employed commercially available fats indicate that myristic acid might be four to six times more cholesterReceived October 29, 1993; revision accepted January 3, 1994. From the Department of Human Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, the Netherlands.Correspondence to Prof Dr M.B. Katan, Department of Human Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University, Bomenweg 2, 6703 HD Wageningen, the Netherlands. lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol by 0.12 mmol/L, and apolipoprotein (apo) A-I by 7.2 mg/dL relative to palmitic acid; increases relative to oleic acid were 0.50 mmol/L for LDL cholesterol, 0.15 mmol/L for HDL cholesterol, 6.0 mg/dL for apoB, and 8.9 mg/dL for apoA-I (P<.01 for all c...

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Section: Gender-specific Effectsmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…Furthermore, mean effects of diet on lipoproteins in the 11 women using and the 25 women not using oral contraceptives were identical. Oral contraceptives may influence absolute serum lipid levels, 45 but apparently they do not affect responsiveness of lipoproteins to diet. This agrees with our previous experience.…”

Section: Gender-specific Effectsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men.

Zock

Vries

Katan

1994

Arterioscler Thromb

247

146

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Compared to other studies, our study design differed with regard to sampling methods (19,20), cycle period determination (5,6,21), dietary prescriptions (4,8) and, most important, the population size. Several studies (4)(5)(6)(7)(8) lacked statistical power owing to the small population size.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

“…However, in general in these reports it was not docu¬ mented which phase of the menstrual cycle was used as a control. A few investigators studied the fluctuations in serum lipids and Iipoproteins during the menstrual cycle (4)(5)(6)(7)(8), but all these studies suffer from a lack of sufficient participants to draw firm conclusions.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Differences in serum lipids, lipoproteins, sex hormone binding globulin and testosterone between the follicular and the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

Schijf

Mooren

Doesburg³

et al. 1993

Acta Endocrinologica

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Schijf CPT, van der Mooren MJ, Doesburg WH, Thomas CMC, Rolland R. Differences in serum lipids, Iipoproteins, sex hormone binding globulin and testosterone between the follicular and the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Acta Endocrinol 1993;129:130-3. ISSN 0001-5598 Fifty-four healthy women were studied during the follicular and the luteal phase of one menstrual cycle to determine possible cyclic influences on several parameters. After a 12-h overnight fast, blood samples were obtained between 08.00 h and 09.30 h and processed for total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins A-I and B and total triglycerides. In the same samples we also measured serum concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, 17\g=b\-oestradiol, progesterone, sex hormone binding globulin and testosterone. Serum total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the related apolipoprotein B were decreased significantly with 0.35 mmol/l, 0.44 mmol/l and 15 mg/l, respectively, during the luteal phase as compared to the follicular phase (p\m=le\0.01).The ratios of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and of total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol were also significantly lower (p <0.01) in the luteal phase because high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and its major carrier apolipoprotein A-I as well as serum triglycerides remained unchanged in the two cycle phases compared. Sex hormone binding globulin was significantly higher (p <0.001) in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase of the investigated cycles, whereas serum testosterone remained unchanged in the two cycle phases compared. Therefore, the free androgen index decreased in the luteal phase (p<0.01). These results indicate the necessity to define the cycle phase in which blood has been collected during control cycles in studies concentrating on possible effects of oral contraceptives or other administered sex steroids on serum lipids, lipoproteins and androgen metabolism. Further, we suggest that variations in the serum concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins during the normal menstrual cycle should be considered when normal range values are defined.A certain relationship between the use of oral contracep¬ tives and an increased incidence of cardiovasular disease (1-3) has been demonstrated. Most reports on serum lipids and Iipoproteins were restricted to comparing the effects of the oestrogenic and/or the progestogenic components of oral contraceptives with either the follicular or the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. However, in general in these reports it was not docu¬ mented which phase of the menstrual cycle was used as a control. A few investigators studied the fluctuations in serum lipids and Iipoproteins during the menstrual cycle (4-8), but all these studies suffer from a lack of sufficient participants to draw firm conclusions.The observed changes brought about by oral contra¬ ceptives and other administered sex ster...

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“…Results from one study of eight women taking high-dose second-generation combined contraceptives suggested that the unfavourable metabolic changes that can develop during pill-taking appear to reverse during the pill-free interval. 25 Although the adverse metabolic changes during pill-taking are markedly reduced with modern low-dose COCs, any potential benefits gained by monthly 'breaks' would be lost if the number of pill-free intervals is reduced. This may not be relevant for the majority of pill users, but may be important for 'high-risk' women if studies of COC users suggesting synergy of risks for thrombotic events, which include migraine, are correct.…”

Section: Current Practice For Prevention Of Migraine In the Pill-freementioning

confidence: 99%

Prevention of migraine in the pill-free interval of combined oral contraceptives: A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study using natural oestrogen supplements

MacGregor¹,

Hackshaw

2002

j fam plann reprod health care

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Influence of contraceptive pill and menstrual cycle on serum lipids and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations.

Cited by 47 publications

References 20 publications

Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men.

Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels in healthy women and men.

Differences in serum lipids, lipoproteins, sex hormone binding globulin and testosterone between the follicular and the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

Prevention of migraine in the pill-free interval of combined oral contraceptives: A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study using natural oestrogen supplements

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