Influence of Menstrual Cycle or Hormonal Contraceptive Phase on Energy Intake and Metabolic Hormones—A Pilot Study

Abstract

Sex hormones are suggested to influence energy intake (EI) and metabolic hormones. This study investigated the influence of menstrual cycle (MC) and hormonal contraceptive (HC) cycle phases on EI, energy availability (EA), and metabolic hormones in recreational athletes (eumenorrheic, NHC = 15 and monophasic HC-users, CHC = 9). In addition, 72-h dietary and training logs were collected in addition to blood samples, which were analyzed for 17β-estradiol (E2), progesterone (P4), leptin, total ghrelin, insulin, and tri-iodothyronine (T3). Measurements were completed at four time-points (phases): Bleeding, mid-follicular (FP)/active 1, ovulation (OVU)/active 2, mid-luteal (LP)/inactive in NHC/CHC, respectively. As expected, E2 and P4 fluctuated significantly in NHC (p < 0.05) and remained stable in CHC. In NHC, leptin increased significantly between bleeding and ovulation (p = 0.030) as well as between FP and OVU (p = 0.022). No group differences in other measured hormones were observed across the MC and HC cycle. The mean EI and EA were similar between phases, with no significant differences observed in macronutrient intake over either the MC or HC. While the MC phase might have a small, but statistically significant effect on leptin, the findings of the present study suggest that the MC or HC phase does not significantly alter ad libitum EI or EA in recreational athletes.

Power Loading–Induced Fatigue Is Influenced by Menstrual Cycle Phase

“…Analysis of food diaries was completed with the Fineli program (National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland). As reported earlier, no significant differences in energy intake were observed between MC phases (15). Participants were instructed to avoid caffeine and to eat a typical light meal or snack roughly 3 h before the test.…”

Influence of Menstrual Cycle or Hormonal Contraceptive Phase on Physiological Variables Monitored During Treadmill Testing

“…Nevertheless, we incorporated both prospective determination of MC phases as well as retrospective confirmation of both MC and HC phases according to current recommendations for best practice ( Elliott-Sale et al, 2020b ). Furthermore, we collected nutritional data and strived to perform testing in a standardized fed state as well as at the same time of day ( Ihalainen et al, 2021 ). We must acknowledge that different HC formulations and dosages individually affect endogenous hormonal profiles ( Elliott-Sale et al, 2013 ), while also recognizing that eumenorrheic cycles display variation ( MacNutt et al, 2012 ).…”

“…A 3-day food diary including the day before, day of, and day after aerobic testing was collected for each phase. Analysis of food diaries using software (Fineli, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland) indicated no significant differences in total energy or macronutrient intake between tests (see Ihalainen et al, 2021 ). Prior to testing, participants were instructed to avoid caffeine and to eat a typical light meal or snack roughly 3 h before the test.…”

Associations of Sex Hormones and Hormonal Status With Arterial Stiffness in a Female Sample From Reproductive Years to Menopause

“…This study uses data and samples from two studies: the Endogenous and exogenous hormones and performance in women (MEndEx) study and the Estrogen, MicroRNAs and the Risk of Metabolic Dysfunction (EsmiRs) study. MEndEx study protocol has been published in ( 34 ). Briefly, healthy women aged 18–40 years were recruited by advertisements in the local newspaper and via social media.…”