Influence of Texture on the Perception of Saltiness in Wheat Bread

Abstract

As a basis for sodium reduction in bread, the influence of crumb texture on the intensity of saltiness and the release of sodium ions during chewing was investigated. A coarse-pored bread crumb was created by extending the proofing time (90/120 min vs 20/40 min as control), whereas the omission of proofing resulted in a fine-pored crumb (0/0 min). A significantly faster sodium release from the coarse-pored bread compared to the fine-pored bread (constant sample weight) was measured in-mouth and in a mastication simulator. This explained the significantly enhanced salty taste of the 90/120 min bread. Corresponding experiments with constant sample volumes revealed a significantly enhanced saltiness despite similar amounts of extracted sodium during the first seconds of chewing. Therefore, saltiness was influenced both by the velocity of sodium release and by crumb texture. Appropriate modification of crumb texture thus leads to enhanced saltiness, suggesting a new strategy for salt reduction in bread.

Applicability of salt reduction strategies in pizza crust

“…Therefore, it is not possible to enhance the salt taste in baked goods, like pizza crust, by increasing the total extractability, but by accelerating sodium release, especially during the first 15 s of mastication. Texture profile analyses of all different pizza crusts assessed in this study (Table 1) did not reveal significant differences compared to the standard (data not shown), so that there was no evidence for possible texture-taste interactions in pizza crusts as reported for bread crumb (Pflaum et al, 2013b). In the following, three strategies based on optimized product formulations were assessed for their ability to increase the velocity of sodium release.…”

“…The sensory panel consisted of 18 trained (ISO 8586) assessors (13 women and 5 men, aged 24 -34 years), with no history of known taste or smell disorders, who had given informed consent to participate in the sensory tests of the present investigation and were familiar with the taste language (Hillmann, Mattes, Brockhoff, Dunkel, Meyerhof & Hofmann, 2012;Konitzer et al, 2013;Pflaum et al, 2013a;Pflaum et al, 2013b). All sensory analyses were performed in three different sessions in a sensory panel room at 22 °C.…”

“…The time-dependent increase of extracted sodium from pizza crust, especially during the first 15 -30 s, is in good agreement with earlier studies on solid lipoprotein matrices (Lawrence et al, 2012b) and potato crisps (Tian & Fisk, 2012). An overall extractability of 100% has also been reported for sodium release from bread crumb (Konitzer et al, 2013, Pflaum et al, 2013b. Therefore, it is not possible to enhance the salt taste in baked goods, like pizza crust, by increasing the total extractability, but by accelerating sodium release, especially during the first 15 s of mastication.…”

“…These include chemical stimulation to increase saltiness perception, such as the use of salt replacers or enhancers (Kilcast & den Ridder, 2007;Liem, Miremadi & Keast, 2011), cognitive mechanisms to raise consumer awareness or shift preferences for saltiness, and optimization of product structures (Busch, Yong & Goh, 2013). Among the cognitive mechanisms are reduction by stealth (Girgis et al, 2003) and the use of perceptual interactions to increase saltiness perception either by salt-associated aromas (Lawrence, Salles, Palicki, Septier, Busch & Thomas-Danguin, 2011) or tastes or by texture-taste interactions (Koliandris, Morris, Hewson, Hort, Taylor & Wolf, 2010;Pflaum, Konitzer, Hofmann & Koehler, 2013b). Strategies to optimize product structures for enhanced saltiness include the acceleration of the dissolution rate of salt crystals from dry products using very fine crystals (Kilcast & den Ridder, 2007), the use of inert fillers to concentrate salt in the aqueous phase (Goh, Leroux, Groeneschild & Busch, 2010), and the adaptation of food matrix composition.…”

“…For example, a higher water content led to a faster sodium release and a higher fat content led to a decreased saltiness perception in solid lipoprotein matrices (Lawrence et al, 2012a;Lawrence, Septier, Achilleos, Courcoux & Salles, 2012b). Furthermore, a faster sodium release during mastication was associated with an intense salty taste in bread crumbs (Konitzer, Pflaum, Oliveira, Arendt, Koehler & Hofmann, 2013;Pflaum et al, 2013b) and in polysaccharide model systems (Scherf, Pflaum, Koehler & Hofmann, 2015). Creating an inhomogeneous spatial distribution of salt reduces the adaptation of taste receptors through the presence of taste contrasts and allows a reduction of salt levels in bread, while maintaining taste intensity (Konitzer et al, 2013;Noort, Bult & Stieger, 2012;Noort, Bult, Stieger & Hamer, 2010).…”