Influences of Maternal Factors Over Offspring Allergies and the Application for Food Allergy

Abstract

The prevalence of food allergy has been steadily rising worldwide with the highest incidence noted among younger children, and increasingly recognized as a growing public concern. The first known ingestion of foods often causes allergic reaction, suggesting that sensitization of offspring with food allergens may occur during pregnancy and/or through breastfeeding. This creates a milieu that shapes the neonatal immune responses to these allergens. However, the effects of maternal allergen exposure and maternal sensitization with allergens on development of allergies in offspring remain controversial. This review discusses recent advances from human data in our understanding of how maternal factors, namely, food allergens, allergen-specific immunoglobulins, cytokines, genetics, and environmental factors transferred during pregnancy or breastfeeding influence offspring allergies and how such effects may be applicable to food allergy. Based on information obtained from mouse models of asthma and food allergy, the review also dissects the mechanisms by which maternal factors, including the impact of immune complexes, transforming growth factor-β, vitamin A, and regulatory T-cell responses, contribute to the induction of neonatal tolerance vs. development of allergic responses to maternally transferred allergens.

New Perspectives in Food Allergy

“…During this period, also knownas "window of opportunity", the individual's susceptibility to develop allergies is established [20,116]. Treg environment at the maternal-fetal interface is protective for the fetus and maternal factors contribute to induce tolerance to allergens in neonates [117,118]. Awareness of the lasting effects of environmental factors on the immune system in this very early period of life has profoundly conditioned the prevention strategies for FA.…”

“…The early introduction of food allergens into the diet could, therefore, representa promising prevention strategy [129][130][131][132][133][134]. Furthermore, the maternal consumption of common food allergens (mainly milk and peanuts) during pregnancy and a greater food diversity in childhood diet could be further useful tools for reducing allergic risk [117,118,135].…”

Association of Maternal Microbiota and Diet in Cord Blood Cytokine and Immunoglobulin Profiles

“…With regard to the maternal diet, Ellen L. Mozurkewich and colleagues demonstrated that supplements of omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA; docosahexaenoic acid, DHA) in pregnant women decrease levels of proinflammatory CKs and are associated positively with those of IL-10 (anti-inflammatory CK) in maternal plasma but not in cord blood [ 19 ]. In addition, during the gestational period the intake of potential food allergens induces tolerance in offspring in humans [ 20 ]. Thus, this indicates that maternal diet can influence a baby’s health during pregnancy, although the exact mechanisms are rather unknown.…”

The Impact of Milk and Its Components on Epigenetic Programming of Immune Function in Early Life and Beyond: Implications for Allergy and Asthma

“…This may, in part, be linked to the production of SCFA by the intestinal microbiota (82)(83)(84)(85)(86). Even though maternal diet during pregnancy and breastfeeding can modulate the prevalence of allergy in the offspring, the potential role of breastfeeding in allergy prevention is still under discussion, as it seems to be linked to variations in breast milk composition rather than to breastfeeding per se (53,87).…”