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The antigenic variability of Influenza D virus (IDV), a recently identified pathogen with significant implications for livestock and zoonotic diseases, presents unique challenges in virology, epidemiology, and public health. This review stands out by focusing explicitly on IDV's distinct antigenic shift and drift mechanisms, which are underexplored compared to other influenza viruses. Unlike previous studies that broadly address influenza evolution, this research emphasizes IDV’s specific molecular and ecological traits, particularly its hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) protein, which plays a critical role in antigenic reconfiguration. The study integrates genomic sequencing, structural bioinformatics, and epidemiological surveillance to deliver a comprehensive understanding of IDV's evolutionary potential and cross-species transmission risks. This review uniquely highlights IDV’s moderate propensity for antigenic switching, particularly in livestock reservoirs such as cattle and swine, which act as amplification hosts for viral dissemination. By rigorously mapping the virus’s antigenic architecture, this work provides novel insights into its adaptive mechanisms and evolutionary trajectory, offering practical implications for vaccine development, immune evasion strategies, and interspecies transmission control. The methodological foundation includes an exhaustive review of peer-reviewed literature, in silico simulations, and phylogenetic analyses, setting this study apart as a detailed exploration of IDV’s antigenic dynamics. Findings emphasize the challenges posed by IDV variability for sustainable vaccine development, necessitating regular updates to address ongoing antigenic shifts. This study significantly advances global efforts to understand and manage IDV evolution, underscoring the urgent need for enhanced surveillance in agricultural, veterinary, and public health systems. By doing so, it bridges critical knowledge gaps and informs future diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive strategies tailored to mitigate zoonotic threats.
The antigenic variability of Influenza D virus (IDV), a recently identified pathogen with significant implications for livestock and zoonotic diseases, presents unique challenges in virology, epidemiology, and public health. This review stands out by focusing explicitly on IDV's distinct antigenic shift and drift mechanisms, which are underexplored compared to other influenza viruses. Unlike previous studies that broadly address influenza evolution, this research emphasizes IDV’s specific molecular and ecological traits, particularly its hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) protein, which plays a critical role in antigenic reconfiguration. The study integrates genomic sequencing, structural bioinformatics, and epidemiological surveillance to deliver a comprehensive understanding of IDV's evolutionary potential and cross-species transmission risks. This review uniquely highlights IDV’s moderate propensity for antigenic switching, particularly in livestock reservoirs such as cattle and swine, which act as amplification hosts for viral dissemination. By rigorously mapping the virus’s antigenic architecture, this work provides novel insights into its adaptive mechanisms and evolutionary trajectory, offering practical implications for vaccine development, immune evasion strategies, and interspecies transmission control. The methodological foundation includes an exhaustive review of peer-reviewed literature, in silico simulations, and phylogenetic analyses, setting this study apart as a detailed exploration of IDV’s antigenic dynamics. Findings emphasize the challenges posed by IDV variability for sustainable vaccine development, necessitating regular updates to address ongoing antigenic shifts. This study significantly advances global efforts to understand and manage IDV evolution, underscoring the urgent need for enhanced surveillance in agricultural, veterinary, and public health systems. By doing so, it bridges critical knowledge gaps and informs future diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive strategies tailored to mitigate zoonotic threats.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) of the H5N1 subtype (clade 2.3.4.4b) have been detected in raw milk from infected cows. Several studies have examined the time and temperature parameters to ascertain whether influenza viruses in milk can be inactivated completely under commercial pasteurization conditions, yielding conflicting results. This study aimed to investigate whether milk could help protect influenza viruses from heat treatment. After heat treatment at 49 °C for one hour, the titer reduction of the influenza A/WSN/1933 (A/H1) virus in milk was approximately 1.6 log10TCID50/mL, which was significantly lower than that (3 log10TCID50/mL) observed in the Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) control media. The influenza D/bovine/CHN/JY3002/2022 (D/Yama2019) virus in milk retained a high residual infectivity (4.68 × 103 log10TCID50/mL) after treatment at 53 °C; however, the virus in DMEM completely lost its infectivity under the same conditions. Moreover, the influenza A/chicken/CHN/Cangzhou03/2023 (A/H5) virus in DMEM could be inactivated completely using any of the three heat treatment methods: 63 °C for 30 min, 72 °C for 15 s, or 80 °C for 15 s. For the virus present in milk, only heat treatment at 80 °C for 15 s completely inactivated it. These results suggest that milk prevents influenza viruses from pasteurization inactivation.
Influenza D virus (IDV) is a newly emerged zoonotic virus increasingly reported worldwide. Cattle are considered the main reservoir of IDV, although it was first isolated from pigs. IDV infects multiple animal species and contributes to the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). To date, there has been no report on the presence and frequency of IDV among cattle herds in Pakistan. In this study, we collected nasal swabs from cattle and performed virological surveillance of IDV via qRT-PCR. Among 376 swab samples, IDV was detected in 9 samples (2.4%). Four dairy cattle farms were positive for IDV; two IDV-positive samples (two/nine, 22.2%) belonged to asymptomatic cattle, while seven IDV-positive samples (seven/nine, 77.8%) were from cattle showing respiratory clinical signs, including two with a recent history of abortion and mastitis. Partial sequences of the hemagglutinin–esterase-fusion gene of IDV were obtained from nine qRT-PCR-positive samples. Notably, all IDV strains in this study clustered within the D/OK lineages in phylogenetic analysis. A 98.8–99.6% genetic identity to its European and US counterparts indicates that the IDVs are closely related. The D/OK lineage of IDV was previously unreported in Pakistan. This is the first report of IDV in Pakistan. We confirmed that IDV is circulating among cattle herds in Pakistan. This study underscores the importance of virological surveillance to monitor the ecology of IDV for better animal and public health. The continued spread of IDV and its adaptation to various hosts necessitate further epidemiological studies.
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