Inhalable particle-bound marine biotoxins in a coastal atmosphere: Concentration levels, influencing factors and health risks

Harmful algal bloom aerosols and human health

“… 24 , 26 An analysis of aerosols and multiple HAB toxins (brevetoxin, okadaic acid, pectenotoxin-2, domoic acid, tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin, ciguatoxin, and ω-Conotoxin) off the coast of China found that the particles were predominantly coarse, and deposition efficiency was found in the head airway region (74.06%–75.76%), followed by the alveolar (16.14%–17.40%) and tracheobronchial (8.24%–8.69%) regions. 27 An experimental study found that an increase in cyanoHAB activity enhanced aerosol production in the ultrafine size range (d a < 100 nm) and accumulation modes (100–1000 nm), 28 which can penetrate deeper into the respiratory tract than fine and coarse aerosols. The size of aerosols further varies as a function of distance from HAB locations.…”

“… 28 Multiple HAB toxins have been detected at a sampling site that was 25 km away from the coast in Qingdao, China. 27 Aerosolized toxins may also persist along the shore, where blooms tend to accumulate. 23 …”

“…Previous works used enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) to detect HAB toxins in the sampled particulate matter. 26 , 27 ELISA kits provide total HAB toxin concentration, but there are >300 congeners with different amino acids or other molecular modifications whose prevalence connects to bloom conditions. 49 These congeners have different toxicity and bioavailability, 50 which makes connecting total toxin concentrations to exposure and health outcomes challenging.…”

Synergistic Effect of Brevetoxin BTX-3 and Ciguatoxin CTX3C in Human Voltage-Gated Nav1.6 Sodium Channels

“…The worldwide spread of emergent marine biotoxins, already affecting European coasts, and the scarce reliable information about their biological effects led to several international organizations such as FAO, WHO, and EFSA highlighting the need for a full re-evaluation of the toxicity and relative potencies of these food contaminants. , Moreover, the coexistence of CTXs and BTXs in fishery products has been previously reported. − In addition, the possibility of misdiagnosis of NSP with CP has been considered due to their similar symptomatology, and methods to discriminate CTXs from BTXs in fish tissue had been developed . Both, BTXs and CTXs, can also accumulate in water and air, increasing the risk of coexposure to both groups of marine biotoxins. So far, the broad reports on the activity of marine toxins evaluated only their separate effects even when they share the same molecular target.…”

“… 25 − 28 In addition, the possibility of misdiagnosis of NSP with CP has been considered due to their similar symptomatology, and methods to discriminate CTXs from BTXs in fish tissue had been developed. 26 Both, BTXs and CTXs, can also accumulate in water and air, 29 increasing the risk of coexposure to both groups of marine biotoxins. So far, the broad reports on the activity of marine toxins evaluated only their separate effects even when they share the same molecular target.…”