“…If epidermal EMP+ basal cells are homologous with mammalian ameloblasts, we reasoned that in addition to genes encoding matrix proteins, these cells should express transcription factors that regulate mammalian ameloblast differentiation. Indeed, we find that dlx3a , dlx4a , msx2a , and runx2b are expressed in these cells ( Figure 3B ; Pemberton et al, 2007 ; Debiais-Thibaud et al, 2011 ; Urzúa et al, 2011 ; Bae et al, 2018 ; Chu et al, 2018 ; Woodruff et al, 2022 ; Li et al, 2011b ). Together, these results suggest that the enamel-like, hypermineralized limiting layer of the scale is produced by deeply conserved, ameloblast-like epidermal cells.…”