Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) mediates estrogen (E 2 ) actions in the brain and is critical for normal reproductive function and behavior. In the classical pathway, ERα binds to estrogen response elements (EREs) to regulate gene transcription. ERα can also participate in several non-classical pathways, including ERE-independent gene transcription via protein-protein interactions with transcription factors and rapid, non-genotropic pathways. To distinguish between ERE-dependent and ERE-independent mechanisms of E 2 action in vivo, we have created ERα null mice that possess an ER knock-in mutation (E207A/G208A; "AA"), in which the mutant ERα cannot bind to DNA but retains activity in ERE-independent pathways (ERα −/AA mice). Understanding the molecular mechanisms of ERα action will be helpful in developing pharmacological therapies that differentiate between ERE-dependent and -independent processes. This review focuses on how the ERα −/AA model has contributed to our knowledge of ERα signaling mechanisms in estrogen regulation of the reproductive axis and sexual behavior.
Keywordsestrogen receptor alpha; estrogen response element; non-classical signaling; negative feedback; sexual behaviorThe biological effects of estrogens are mediated through at least two distinct nuclear receptors, ERα and ERβ, which belong to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily (Mangelsdorf et al., 1995). In the classical pathway of estrogen action, E 2 binds to ER, inducing conformational changes within the receptor that promote dimerization and interaction with coactivator and corepressor molecules. The ligand-receptor complex binds with high affinity to specific estrogen response elements (EREs) in the regulatory regions of target genes to either activate or repress gene expression (Glass, 1994;McKenna et al