Insight into the deep eutectic solvent pretreatment of oil palm empty fruit bunches: Effects of temperature, empty fruit bunch to solvent ratio, and time

Abstract

This work aimed to comprehensively examine the pretreatment efficiency of oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) using two different types of deep eutectic solvent (DES) mixtures, i.e., choline chloride/imidazole (DES-I) and choline chloride/glycerol (DES-G) in terms of pretreated EFB structural composition and enzymatic hydrolysis. The influence of the pretreatment temperature (55 °C, 90 °C, 125 °C, 160 °C, and 195 °C), EFB to solvent ratio (1:5, 1:10, 1:15, and 1:20), and pretreatment time (2 h, 4 h, and 6 h) on the performance of pretreated EFB and the generated black liquor was examined. The optimal conditions for EFB pretreatment were 160 °C, 1:5 ratio, and 2 h using DES-I solvent, and 160 °C, 1:10 ratio and 4 h using DES-G solvent. The structural carbohydrates of empty fruit bunch pretreated with DES-I, DES-I EFB1 and DES-G, DES-G EFB2 increased to 66.1%, and 64.6%, respectively. The enzymatic hydrolysis of DES-I EFB1 resulted in higher glucan conversion (92.4%) compared to DES-G EFB2, indicating that DES-I solvent was more efficient than DES-G for EFB pretreatment. X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and variable-pressure scanning electron microscopy confirmed the removal of lignin and hemicelluloses from EFB during pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis.

Synergistic sequential oxidative extraction for nanofibrillated cellulose isolated from oil palm empty fruit bunch

“…ATR was used without any extra materials or holder. All sample spectra were scanned in the range of 4000–600 cm -1 under a wavelength resolution of 4 cm -1 and recorded in transmission mode [ 25 ]. Then, the FTIR analysis was used to determine the lignin-to-cellulose ratio.…”

“…The crystallinity index of the samples was calculated as Eq 3 . where I 002 (2θ = 22.5°) is the intensity that represents both crystalline and amorphous material and I am (2θ = 18°) is the intensity that represents amorphous material [ 25 ].…”

“…In pretreatment, the use of chlorite produces chlorine radicals that react with lignocellulose and subsequently create toxic organochlorine [ 23 , 24 ]. Meanwhile, the utilization of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) causes the formation of salts upon neutralization, which may pose challenges with its disposal during the purification of products [ 25 ]. Extraction of nanocellulose from treated biomass by mechanical approaches such as high-pressure homogenization [ 26 ], high intensity ultrasonication [ 27 ], and steam explosion [ 28 ] are environmentally friendly with less chemicals used, however associated with high energy consumption [ 29 ] and has limited influence on the chemical structural changes of lignocellulose [ 30 , 31 ].…”