“… 9 In America, FW is mainly composed of 30% vegetables and fruit, 21% pasta and bread, and 32% egg and milk, while in Asia, FW is composed of 56% vegetables and fruits, 34% rice and noodle, and around 4% egg and milk. 10 FW has been considered as the substrate to produce valuable chemicals (e.g., biosurfactants, biopolymers, diols); 7 however, it consists of waste flour, meat, eggs, vegetables, fruits, rice, oil, and salt 11 that exhibit high heterogeneity with diverse compositions of proteins, lipids, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, organic acids, vitamins, and minerals. 12 , 13 Therefore, it is difficult to transform FW directly into value-added products due to its complex components.…”