Integrated Pest Management Control ofVarroa destructor(Acari: Varroidae), the Most Damaging Pest of (Apis melliferaL. (Hymenoptera: Apidae)) Colonies

Abstract

Varroa destructor is among the greatest biological threats to western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) health worldwide. Beekeepers routinely use chemical treatments to control this parasite, though overuse and mismanagement of these treatments have led to widespread resistance in Varroa populations. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecologically based, sustainable approach to pest management that relies on a combination of control tactics that minimize environmental impacts. Herein, we provide an in-depth review of the components of IPM in a Varroa control context. These include determining economic thresholds for the mite, identification of and monitoring for Varroa, prevention strategies, and risk conscious treatments. Furthermore, we provide a detailed review of cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control strategies, both longstanding and emerging, used against Varroa globally. For each control type, we describe all available treatments, their efficacies against Varroa as described in the primary scientific literature, and the obstacles to their adoption. Unfortunately, reliable IPM protocols do not exist for Varroa due to the complex biology of the mite and strong reliance on chemical control by beekeepers. To encourage beekeeper adoption, a successful IPM approach to Varroa control in managed colonies must be an improvement over conventional control methods and include cost-effective treatments that can be employed readily by beekeepers. It is our intention to provide the most thorough review of Varroa control options available, ultimately framing our discussion within the context of IPM. We hope this article is a call-to-arms against the most damaging pest managed honey bee colonies face worldwide.

Spatial clusters of Varroa destructor control strategies in Europe

“…Our findings could support extension workers, improve hive management practices and hence reduce honey bee colony losses (Steinhauer et al 2020;Kulhanek et al 2021). The type of substance, mode of application and degree to which different substances are applied also have implications concerning residues present in hive products (Wallner 1999;Mullin et al 2010;Kast et al 2020Kast et al , 2021Abd El-Wahab et al 2021;Stanimirovic et al 2021) and/or mite resistance (Trouiller 1998;Stara et al 2019;Rinkevich 2020;Jack and Ellis 2021). Such resistance has been proven for taufluvalinate (Milani 1995;Colin et al 1997;Baxter et al 1998;Johnson et al 2013;Millán-Leiva et al 2021), amitraz and flumethrin (Rodríguez-Dehaibes et al 2005).…”

“…Several different control methods have been developed. They can be roughly categorized into non-chemical or biotechnical treatments (drone brood removal, hyperthermia, complete brood removal or other methods), 'soft' acaricides (acaricides containing natural-based active ingredients), such as organic acids or essential oils, and 'hard' acaricides containing synthetic active ingredients from the groups of organophosphates, pyrethroids or formamidine (amitraz) (Rosenkranz et al 2010;Roth et al 2020;Jack and Ellis 2021). Unfortunately, a one-fits-all control method is not available, and each control method has its advantages and disadvantages.…”

More Worker Capped Brood and Honey Bees with Less Varroa Load Are Simple Precursors of Colony Productivity at Beekeepers’ Disposal: An Extensive Longitudinal Survey

“…At the beginning of the lavender honey flow, starting between the 8th of June and the 1st of July depending on the year and the region, the number of worker capped brood cells (excluding drone brood) and the number of bees (only after 2012) were estimated with the ColEval method [ 9 ]. At the same time, phoretic mite numbers were determined using soap washes of 300 bee samples collected in all colonies [ 10 ]. Samples of bees were collected from brood areas containing emerging adult honey bee workers [ 11 , 12 ].…”

Frontiers in effective control of problem parasites in beekeeping

“…However, in parallel to the case described below in varroa control, a challenge still remains in delivering effective and scalable screening or quantification protocols for the diversity of EFB strains that may present in colonies; this is discussed as part of recent efforts to develop a lateral flow monitoring protocol by Milbrath et al (2021) . Varroa control is the current dominant concern in honey bee parasite control, including whether IPM approaches are suitable in beekeeping; IPM approaches for varroa control were recently reviewed in detail by Jack and Ellis (2021) . Varroa are present in nearly all colonies worldwide ( Wilfert et al, 2016 ), and become a problem when per-capita parasitism reaches certain thresholds.…”

“…Varroa control is the current dominant concern in honey bee parasite control, including whether IPM approaches are suitable in beekeeping; IPM approaches for varroa control were recently reviewed in detail by Jack and Ellis (2021) . Varroa are present in nearly all colonies worldwide ( Wilfert et al, 2016 ), and become a problem when per-capita parasitism reaches certain thresholds.…”