Integrated System Design: Promoting the Capacity of Sociotechnical Systems for Adaptation through Extensions of Cognitive Work Analysis

Abstract

This paper proposes an approach for integrated system design, which has the intent of facilitating high levels of effectiveness in sociotechnical systems by promoting their capacity for adaptation. Building on earlier ideas and empirical observations, this approach recognizes that to create adaptive systems it is necessary to integrate the design of all of the system elements, including the interfaces, teams, training, and automation, such that workers are supported in adapting their behavior as well as their structure, or organization, in a coherent manner. Current approaches for work analysis and design are limited in regard to this fundamental objective, especially in cases when workers are confronted with unforeseen events. A suitable starting point is offered by cognitive work analysis (CWA), but while this framework can support actors in adapting their behavior, it does not necessarily accommodate adaptations in their structure. Moreover, associated design approaches generally focus on individual system elements, and those that consider multiple elements appear limited in their ability to facilitate integration, especially in the manner intended here. The proposed approach puts forward the set of possibilities for work organization in a system as the central mechanism for binding the design of its various elements, so that actors can adapt their structure as well as their behavior—in a unified fashion—to handle both familiar and novel conditions. Accordingly, this paper demonstrates how the set of possibilities for work organization in a system may be demarcated independently of the situation, through extensions of CWA, and how it may be utilized in design. This lynchpin, conceptualized in the form of a diagram of work organization possibilities (WOP), is important for preserving a system's inherent capacity for adaptation. Future research should focus on validating these concepts and establishing the feasibility of implementing them in industrial contexts.

Cognitive work analysis: An influential legacy extending beyond human factors and engineering

“…In contrast, Naikar and Elix (2015, 2016a, 2016b have approached the problem of integrated system design from a compatibility rather than concurrency perspective. That is, their concern is with how the designs of multiple elements can be coordinated such that they all promote adaptations in workers' behaviour and structure, or work organisation, in a coherent manner.…”

“…Initial work in this area concentrated predominantly on the first two dimensions, namely work domain analysis (Naikar, 2013;Naikar et al, 2005) and activity analysis (Ashoori and Burns, 2010;Elix and Naikar, 2008;Lamoureux and Chalmers, 2009;Lamoureux and Sartori, 2007;Naikar et al, 2006). However, over time, increasingly greater attention has been paid to the other dimensions, specifically strategies analysis (e.g., Cornelissen et al, 2013;Hassall and Sanderson, 2014), social organisation and cooperation analysis (e.g., Naikar and Elix, 2015, 2016a, 2016bPfautz and Pfautz, 2009), and worker competencies analysis (e.g., Kilgore et al, 2009). This line of work on methods and modelling tools appears to have two main motivations.…”

“…Many of these modelling tools were part of the original descriptions of CWA (Rasmussen, 1986;Rasmussen et al, 1994), arising out of the work of Jens Rasmussen and his colleagues at the Risø National Laboratory in Denmark. However, the contextual activity template for activity analysis (Naikar et al, 2006) and the diagram of work organisation possibilities for social organisation and cooperation analysis (Naikar and Elix, 2015, 2016a, 2016b) are more recent additions that are consistent with the conceptual foundations of CWA.…”

“…These observations have stimulated extensions to CWA, which are particularly apparent in its suite of modelling tools, so that the constraints on effective work practice are properly accounted for by this framework. Two such developments are the contextual activity template (Naikar et al, 2006) and the diagram of work organisation possibilities (Naikar and Elix, 2015, 2016a, 2016b. The rest of this section concentrates on describing the latter as it is a more recent development.…”

“…The diagram of work organisation possibilities (WOP) was developed to account for the observation that complex sociotechnical systems are comprised of multiple workers and that these workers deal with the problem demands of such systems by adapting not just their individual behaviours but also their group structure or organisation (Naikar and Elix, 2015, 2016a, 2016b. Moreover, the adaptations in structure are necessary as a response to changing circumstances as well as to novel events (e.g., Bigley and Roberts, 2001;Bogdanovic et al, 2015;Rochlin et al, 1987).…”