“…These principles, derived from successful companies like Motorola and Toyota (Daniyana et al, 2022), address seven waste factors by effectively reducing defects, overproduction, transportation, waiting, inventory, motion, and processing. The concept of "non-value-added time" (NVAT) was introduced, referring to time spent on non-essential project activities (Pongboonchai-Empl et al, 2023). Womack & Jones (1996) introduced five core lean principles, including specifying customer value, identifying value streams, making value flow by eliminating waste, allowing customers to pull the flow, and continuous improvement in the pursuit of perfection.…”