Intergenerational Continuity in Depression: The Importance of Time-Varying Effects, Maternal Co-morbid Health Risk Behaviors and Child’s Gender

Abstract

Intergenerational continuity in depressive symptoms is well established between mother and child, but there are still important facets of this relationship that are underexplored. We examine intergenerational continuity in depressive symptoms between mother–child dyads as a flexible function of child age and account for the potential moderating role of maternal co-morbid health risk behaviors. Using prospective, self-report data collected yearly from 413 mother–child dyads (210 mother–son dyads and 203 mother–daughter dyads) between child ages 12–17, the results indicate that the effect of maternal depressive symptoms on daughters’ depressive symptoms steadily increases throughout adolescence whereas the effect of maternal depressive symptoms on sons’ depressive symptoms is relatively small, stable, and non-significant during mid-adolescence before increasing in effect in later adolescence. A positive interactive effect between maternal depressive symptoms and intimate partner violence is observed for sons and maternal depressive symptoms and substance use for daughters. A negative interactive effect of maternal depressive symptoms and substance use is observed among sons. Overall, this study identifies particular subgroups for whom intervention programming is most beneficial and suggests targeting health risk behaviors of mothers to lessen the impact of maternal depressive symptoms on offspring.

Timing of parental depression on risk of child depression and poor educational outcomes: a population based routine data cohort study from Born in Wales, UK

“…Research into the environmental causes of depressive disorders identified that the absence of parental warmth, decreased parental monitoring, over-involvement, increased hostility, high inter-parental conflict, family stress, poor family functioning, maltreatment, neglect, emotional and physical abuse are all factors that may be at play in this environmental association. 1,2,5,33,34 All of these factors require whole family support. Health visiting in the United Kingdom is largely based on mothers and children, with little focus given to fathers in comparison.…”

“…Depression in a parent is a common and potent risk factor for depression in the child 1,2 and is also associated with a range of adverse child health and educational outcomes including poorer academic attainment. 1,3–8 To date, the vast majority of research has focused on the effect of maternal depression on offspring outcomes. Depression in a mother increases the likelihood of offspring depression by 3 to 4 fold on average, with 6 to 10 fold increases in risk reported when maternal depression is severe or recurrent.…”

“…9 Depressive disorders are a prominent cause of disability worldwide 10,11 and often onset in adolescence or early adult life. Early-onset depression (by the 20s) is concerning because numerous studies indicate it is associated with particularly poor outcomes including poor physical and mental health 1,4,5,8 , suicide 6,7 and academic failure. 12 Educational performance at school is itself also associated with future health and economic outcomes.…”

Timing of parental depression on risk of child depression and poor educational outcomes: A population based routine data cohort study from Born in Wales, UK

“…Depression in a parent is a common and potent risk factor for depression in the child [ 1 , 2 ] and is also associated with a range of adverse child health and educational outcomes including poorer academic attainment [ 1 , 3 – 8 ]. To date, the vast majority of research has focused on the effect of maternal depression on offspring outcomes.…”

“…Depressive disorders are a prominent cause of disability worldwide [ 10 , 11 ] and often onset in adolescence or early adult life. Early-onset depression (by the 20s) is concerning because numerous studies indicate it is associated with particularly poor outcomes including poor physical and mental health [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 8 ], suicide [ 6 , 7 ] and academic failure [ 12 ]. Educational performance at school is itself also associated with future health and economic outcomes [ 13 ].…”