“…Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is among the most widely used NIBS techniques adopted in both basic neuroscience research and clinical applications, especially in neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric disorders (Machii, Cohen et al 2006, Ridding and Rothwell 2007, Bakker, Shahab et al 2015, Somaa, de Graaf et al 2022). An increasing number of studies have shown that rTMS can induce neuroplasticity across brain regions, systems, and timescales (Song, Chang et al 2019, Shang, Chang et al 2020, Feng, Deng et al 2022, Fitzsimmons, Oostra et al 2023, Deng, Chen et al 2024), through the long-term potentiation/depression (LTP/LTD) of excitatory synaptic transmission (Esser, Huber et al 2006, Hoogendam, Ramakers et al 2010). Conventional high-frequency rTMS (HF-rTMS >5 Hz) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-DLPFC) can increase executive control functions such as working memory and is a widely adopted treatment protocol for psychiatry disorders such as major depression disorder (MDD) (Avery, Holtzheimer III et al 2006, Teng, Guo et al 2017) and substance use disorders (SUD) (Gorelick, Zangen et al 2014, Coles, Kozak et al 2018).…”