Internalized Homophobia Scale for Gay Chinese Men: Conceptualization, Factor Structure, Reliability, and Associations With Hypothesized Correlates

Abstract

This study reports the development of an inventory to assess the perceived internalized homophobia of gay men in a collectivistic Chinese cultural context. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses using two samples suggested the viability and stability of a three-factor model: internalized heteronormativity (IHN), family-oriented identity (FOI), and socially oriented identity (SOI). The 11-item internalized homophobia inventory demonstrated good internal consistency and construct validity. Internalized homophobia was related positively to the extent of a sense of loneliness and negatively to self-evaluation and the discrepancy in self-identification as a gay man. In addition, the participants’ internalized SOI consistently predicted their coming out choices in their social surroundings, while their FOI predicted their decisions to enter into heterosexual marriages. The findings suggest that sexual self-prejudice was correlated with IHN, family values, and social norms. The present research demonstrates that a culturally sensitive scale is necessary to understand the cultural and family-oriented values that influence gay Chinese men’s everyday lives, self-constructs, and behavioral choices.

LGBTQ Health and Well-Being in China: A Trend Analysis of English- and Chinese-Language Research, 2011–2018

“…11 Second, due to the threat of AIDS and the high prevalence of HIV infection and syphilis among men who have sex with men (MSM), 17 the public tends to associate HIV with LGBTQ people, resulting in higher levels of stigma and discrimination. Cultural and family-oriented values are absorbed by Chinese gay men and lesbian women and lead to high levels of internalized homophobia, 18,19 the negative attitudes that LGBTQ people hold toward themselves. 20 Even though historically no laws have explicitly banned same-sex sexual behavior, in 1979, the Chinese government enacted the Hooligan Law, which identified same-sex sexual behavior (e.g., kissing) in public as illegal.…”

The Holistic Health Status of Chinese Homosexual and Bisexual Adults: A Scoping Review Protocol

“…Besides, public attitudes toward homosexuality in China were still not optimistic though homosexual female (lesbian) were more accepted than male (gay) [4,5]. While both lesbians and gays in China reported they felt stressed and helpless in the face of expectations from society and parents [6,7], and both Chinese gay and bisexual men reported having suffered internalized homophobia [8,9], which was found to be positively correlated with loneliness and negatively correlated with lower self-evaluation [8]. All these indicated that many homosexual Chinese were suffering poor mental health, which could lead to self-loathing then probably negatively affects their self-identity [10].…”

The Effects of Self-Construal and the Living Environment on Internalized Homophobia Among Chinese Gay Men

“…6 Individuals from socially oriented cultures are more prone to be concerned with the opinions of others, strong conformity to others, and social norms. 7 Chan (2017) and Ren (2018) claim that homosexual individuals in Chinese cultures describe feelings of guilt and shame about being a homosexual individual because of thoughts of how other people think or judge them and their family. 8,9 Ren identified that homosexual individuals who tend to be more concerned about " others" opinions tend to conform to heteronormative traditions, such as entering a heterosexual marriage, implying that "other"-oriented homosexual individuals experience higher internalized homophobia than homosexual individuals who are not "other"-oriented.…”

“…7 Chan (2017) and Ren (2018) claim that homosexual individuals in Chinese cultures describe feelings of guilt and shame about being a homosexual individual because of thoughts of how other people think or judge them and their family. 8,9 Ren identified that homosexual individuals who tend to be more concerned about " others" opinions tend to conform to heteronormative traditions, such as entering a heterosexual marriage, implying that "other"-oriented homosexual individuals experience higher internalized homophobia than homosexual individuals who are not "other"-oriented. 8,10 Some research claims that different types of self-construals have different impacts on health and psychological well-being.…”

“…8,9 Ren identified that homosexual individuals who tend to be more concerned about " others" opinions tend to conform to heteronormative traditions, such as entering a heterosexual marriage, implying that "other"-oriented homosexual individuals experience higher internalized homophobia than homosexual individuals who are not "other"-oriented. 8,10 Some research claims that different types of self-construals have different impacts on health and psychological well-being. 11,12 Cross, Gore, and Morris claim that the well-being of individuals with high relational self-construals is significantly better than the well-being of those with low relational self-construals.…”