International energy trade impacts on water resource crises: an embodied water flows perspective

Abstract

Water and energy are coupled in intimate ways (Siddiqi and Anadon 2011 Energy Policy 39 4529-40), which is amplified by international energy trade. The study shows that the total volume of energy related international embodied water flows averaged 6298 Mm 3 yr −1 from 1992-2010, which represents 10% of the water used for energy production including oil, coal, gas and electricity production. This study calculates embodied water import and export status of 219 countries from 1992 to 2010 and embodied water flow changes of seven regions over time (1992/2000/2010). In addition, the embodied water net export risk-crisis index and net embodied water import benefit index are established. According to the index system, 33 countries export vast amounts of water who have a water shortage, which causes water risk and crisis related to energy trade. While 29 countries abate this risk due to their rich water resource, 45 countries import embodied water linked to energy imports. Based on the different status of countries studied, the countries were classified into six groups with different policy recommendations.

Global virtual water trade and the hydrological cycle: patterns, drivers, and socio-environmental impacts

“…Virtual water flows have also been estimated for energy sources such as fossil fuels (table 1). Zhang et al (2016a) estimated that 10% of the water needed to extract oil, natural gas, coal, and produce electricity is embodied in energy that is internationally traded. Chini et al (2018) quantified VWT related to electricity production in the US.…”

Water Footprints and Virtual Water Flows Embodied in the Power Supply Chain

“…Germany (Europe) and Canada (North America) are identified as the largest exporters of virtual water; the United Kingdom, Italy, and the United States (North America) are the largest virtual water importers. Similar results are available from [61] in relation to identifying importers and exporters, but there are only a few studies that seek to cover the detailed power trade pathways on a global level, and just some analyses for a specific region. In Europe, the virtual water was transferred from France to Germany in 2014 but from France to Italy in 2016 [62].…”

The traded water footprint of global energy from 2010 to 2018

“…The recent influx of studies, however, generally only focuses on one energy source, electricity, with few exceptions (i.e. 20 ). Additionally, many of these studies rely on different methodologies, making comparison challenging.…”