International Handbook of Anger

Age Differences in Women’s Anger Experience and Expression

“…However, very few researchers have examined how the experience and expression of anger in women may differ across various age groups (Hatch & Forgays, 2001) as well as across various cultures or nationalities. Nonetheless, it has been suggested that emotional expression in general and anger expression in particular are influenced not only by age, but also by cultural norms and display rules that sanction the appropriate way of emotional expression within the culture (Adam, Shirako, & Maddux, 2010;Konwar & Ram, 2004;Matsumoto, Hee Yoo, & Chung, 2010). Our purpose in this study was to assess differences in anger experience and expression in women across three distinct age groups, while controlling for covariates such as education, employment, relationship status, and the country of residence of the participants (i.e., United States or Canada).…”

“…This perspective ignores available information which suggests that women express anger differently than men, and that long-standing cultural, societal and gender-role expectations discourage women from the direct and open expression of anger, leading women to view expression of anger as a threat to interpersonal relationships (Cox, Stabb, & Bruckner, 1999;Cox, Van Velsor, & Hulgus, 2004;Cox & St. Clair, 2005;Hatch & Forgays, 2001;Munhall, 1993;Sharkin, 1993;Thomas, 1989). Consequently, it seems that women suffer anger in silence, or maladaptively divert it to indirect means of expression which become transformed into other pathologies such as bulimia (Meyer et al, 2005), self-cutting (Abu-Madini & Rahim, 2001;Matsumoto et al, 2004) and substance abuse (Gilbert, Gilbert, & Schultz, 1998;Larimer, Palmer, & Marlatt, 1999) or health problems, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease (Kamarck et al, 2009;Warren-Findlow, 2006;Webb & Beckstead, 2005) or obesity (Ricca et al 2009; underscore the appropriate way experience and express anger within a particular culture (Adam et al, 2010;Konwar & Ram, 2004;Matsumoto et al, 2010). Although such cultural and societal norms may vary from country to country, expressions of anger with some modifications and variability can be found across cultures (Matsumoto, et al, 2010).…”

“…Consequently, it seems that women suffer anger in silence, or maladaptively divert it to indirect means of expression which become transformed into other pathologies such as bulimia (Meyer et al, 2005), self-cutting (Abu-Madini & Rahim, 2001;Matsumoto et al, 2004) and substance abuse (Gilbert, Gilbert, & Schultz, 1998;Larimer, Palmer, & Marlatt, 1999) or health problems, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease (Kamarck et al, 2009;Warren-Findlow, 2006;Webb & Beckstead, 2005) or obesity (Ricca et al 2009; underscore the appropriate way experience and express anger within a particular culture (Adam et al, 2010;Konwar & Ram, 2004;Matsumoto et al, 2010). Although such cultural and societal norms may vary from country to country, expressions of anger with some modifications and variability can be found across cultures (Matsumoto, et al, 2010). The concept of anger has (1) universal aspects that cut across cultures (e.g., metaphors used to describe anger) as well as (2) culture-specific elements (e.g., the prototypical models for venting anger) (Kövecses, 2000;.…”

“…The concept of anger has (1) universal aspects that cut across cultures (e.g., metaphors used to describe anger) as well as (2) culture-specific elements (e.g., the prototypical models for venting anger) (Kövecses, 2000;. For example, some authors have suggested that across cultures anger is regarded as a divisive and disruptive force leading to social disorganization and intragroup aggression (Potegal & Novaco, 2010;Matsumoto et al, 2010). On the other hand, expressions of anger have been found to be influenced by whether a particular culture adheres primarily to a collectivistic or individualistic perspective.…”

“…On the other hand, expressions of anger have been found to be influenced by whether a particular culture adheres primarily to a collectivistic or individualistic perspective. For instance, Potegal and Novaco (2010) assert that the display rules in societies that focus on a collectivist perspective, and thus place greater value on interdependence and maintaining social harmony (e.g., Asian groups), are less likely to sanction the overt and direct expression of anger. Conversely, societies with a more individualistic and egalitarian perspective that place greater value on independence and self-determination (e.g., Western groups), are more likely to sanction the open and direct expression of angry feelings.…”