“…Geographical proximity and socio-economic factors also matter: emigration density and population stability, phone access in the host country and high levels of remittances increase turnout (Burgess, 2014;Ciornei & Østergaard-Nielsen, 2020;Dandoy & Kernalegenn, 2021). Finally, higher levels of competitiveness and turnout in homeland elections are associated with higher turnout among emigrants ( Chaudhary, 2018;Dandoy & Kernalegenn, 2021), but not always (Belchior et al, 2018). At the individual level, studies have emphasized that emigrants with higher levels of resources (age, gender, education) have a higher probability to vote in homeland elections, very much like national residents (Burgess, 2014;Guarnizo et al, 2019;McIlwaine & Bermudez, 2015;Mügge et al, 2019).…”