and UAB_Phi87 were encapsulated in liposomes, and their efficacy in reducing Salmonella in poultry was then studied. The encapsulated phages had a mean diameter of 309 to 326 nm and a positive charge between ؉31.6 and ؉35.1 mV (pH 6.1). In simulated gastric fluid (pH 2.8), the titer of nonencapsulated phages decreased by 5.7 to 7.8 log units, whereas encapsulated phages were significantly more stable, with losses of 3.7 to 5.4 log units. The liposome coating also improved the retention of bacteriophages in the chicken intestinal tract. When cocktails of the encapsulated and nonencapsulated phages were administered to broilers, after 72 h the encapsulated phages were detected in 38.1% of the animals, whereas the nonencapsulated phages were present in only 9.5%. The difference was significant. In addition, in an in vitro experiment, the cecal contents of broilers promoted the release of the phages from the liposomes. In broilers experimentally infected with Salmonella, the daily administration of the two cocktails for 6 days postinfection conferred similar levels of protection against Salmonella colonization. However, once treatment was stopped, protection by the nonencapsulated phages disappeared, whereas that provided by the encapsulated phages persisted for at least 1 week, showing the enhanced efficacy of the encapsulated phages in protecting poultry against Salmonella over time. The methodology described here allows the liposome encapsulation of phages of different morphologies. The preparations can be stored for at least 3 months at 4°C and could be added to the drinking water and feed of animals.
Foodborne diseases are a global health problem and include infections with nontyphoidal Salmonella, which is among the most common zoonotic pathogens that affect humans. In fact, this bacterium was responsible for more than 1 million annual cases of food-related illnesses in the United States from 2000 to 2008 (1) and for more than 90,000 cases of salmonellosis (mainly from Salmonella enterica serovars Enteritidis and Typhimurium) diagnosed in the European Union in 2012 (2). The major source of Salmonella infections in humans is poultry products (2), and poultry is the major reservoir of this bacterium. The health risk is exacerbated in the case of broilers, which are asymptomatic carriers that house Salmonella in their gut. In fact, several Salmonella strains persistently colonize chickens but without causing any signs of illness (3). This lack of clinical symptoms facilitates the dissemination of Salmonella within flocks (4), thereby increasing the probability of cross-contamination during the transport, slaughter, and processing of broilers.Salmonella infection in broilers has been controlled mainly through the use of vaccines (5, 6), probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics (7), and antibiotics (8), although the effectiveness of these treatments is limited. Importantly, antibiotics can ultimately increase the severity and frequency of colonization by certain resistant strains of Salmonella (9).Phages are viruses ...