Introduction to banana, abac� and enset.

Members of Gammaproteobacteria as indicator species of healthy banana plants on Fusarium wilt-infested fields in Central America

“…The region also produces 72% of exported plantains4. Pests and diseases, frequently referred as one of the most limiting factors for banana production worldwide, are also a major problem in LAC45. In fact, LAC experienced one of the most devastating plant disease epidemics in history.…”

Progress in understanding Pseudocercospora banana pathogens and the development of resistant Musa germplasm

“…Later, in 1963, P. fijiensis was reported in the Sigatoka district of the Fiji islands, giving the disease the name 'Sigatoka' by which it is commonly known. However, it is believed that P. fijiensis may have existed long before this initial documentation and probably coexisted with P. musae or may have been misidentified for the same pathogen (Meredith & Lawrence, 1970;Stover & Dickson, 1976;Jones, 2000). In less than four decades from its initial documentation, P. fijiensis has spread to attain global distribution in most banana-growing regions, earning the reputation of the most problematic disease of bananas in Africa, Asia, the Pacific Islands and the Americas (Stover, 1980;Stover & Simmonds, 1987).…”

“…On the other hand, P. fijiensis was more prevalent in lower, warmer areas with higher rainfall (Tushemereirwe et al, 1993;Arzanlou et al, 2007;Churchill, 2011). However, there appears to be an adaptation shift towards higher altitude areas by P. fijiensis and in some cases it has replaced P. musae to become the dominant Pseudocercospora banana pathogen (Jones, 2000;Arzanlou et al, 2007). This displacement has been gradual, therefore suggesting an evolutionary adaptation in response to either a changing climate or host fitness (Jones, 2000).…”

“…Pseudocercospora banana pathogens are hemibiotrophic. Once the spores of these pathogens are disseminated to the banana leaf surface and environmental conditions are conducive for pathogen growth, they germinate and penetrate leaf tissues through stomatal openings to colonize the intercellular spaces within mesophyll and pallisade cell layers (Jones, 2000). Symptom expression occurs 7-14 days after infection and is manifested by streaks on leaves that later turn necrotic, thus significantly reducing the leaf's ability to photosynthesize (Churchill, 2011).…”

“…In addition, severe infections induce physiological changes that result in heightened climacteric rise (CO 2 and C 2 H 4 production) that leads to reduced green life (Castelana et al, 2012;Chillet et al, 2014); this is associated with premature and uneven fruit ripening, reduced pulp colour clarity and altered fruit taste. The pathogen-induced early fruit ripening results in farmers harvesting the fruit before maturity to avoid fruit spoilage before reaching the market (Jones, 2000;Mar ın et al, 2003;P erez-Vicente, 2012;Chillet et al, 2014). Infection by Pseudocercospora banana pathogens also triggers the production of hormones such as abscisic acid that are known to play a role in the plant abiotic stress response.…”