Invalid evidence for expectancies as causes: Comment on Kirsch.

Client preferences and anticipations in career counseling: A preliminary investigation.

“…In contrast, client expectations have been accorded an important role in personal counseling/psychotherapy and have been a major research focus for almost 40 years (for reviews see Duckro, Beal, & George, 1979; Higginbotham, West, & Forsyth, 1988; Tinsley, Bowman, & Ray, 1988; Wilkins, 1973, 1986). Most of the early theoretical formulations about client expectations were made before 1962 (e.g., Kamm & Wrenn, 1950; Seeman, 1949).…”

Role anticipations and preferences over the course of counseling.

“…The literature has been consistently supportive of the relation between expectations and behavior, although there is continuing debate over the causal sequence involved (i.e., whether expectations cause behavior, or vice versa, or whether both are caused by something external; cf. Bandura, 1986; Kirsch, 1985, 1986; Wilkens, 1986). With respect to individuals interacting with others, the most common model for how expectations are related to behavior is one in which an individual's behavior is a function of (a) expectations and of (b) the previous behavior of the other (Darley & Fazio, 1980).…”