Invasion vs occupation

Abstract

This study aimed to determine how well embedded reporters perceived they covered the Iraq War and whether those attitudes have changed over time. While findings suggested embeds continue to judge their overall performance as positively in 2005/6 as in 2004, respondents largely recognized problems with the embedding process. Data analysis indicated after the official declaration of victory that embedded reporters became significantly less likely to agree that embeds were qualified for their job. Professional values and norms were perceived as the top factors in reporting the war, as suggested in both surveys. Other measures at the individual level were judged as less influential. Further, while journalistic routines were the strongest predictors of embed performance, these factors did not change over time. Embedded reporters identified individual-level factors, extra-media factors and ideological factors as more influential on their reporting after President Bush declared victory in May 2003 than before that declaration.

Does Violence Against Journalists Deter Detailed Reporting? Evidence From Mexico

“…In addition, extant works have focused on journalists' perceptions of their environment and of their subsequent performance, instead of examining the actual changes in media content and coverage. Nonetheless, journalists working in deadly news-gathering environments have reported that increases in danger affects the topics they covered and how they covered them (Fahmy and Johnson 2012). Threatened reporters in Iraq explicitly decided not to write on controversial topics and refrained to travel for assignments that could put them at an even greater risk, even if that meant being unable to cover a key political event (Kim and Hama-Saeed 2008).…”

“…Beyond the news media routines and organizational policies that may affect media coverage amid violence, journalism scholars have also examined the role of extra-media influences, looking into the effects of violent environments and threats exerted by both state and non-state armed actors attempting to affect the flow of information. Related claims and findings are, however, limited and have mainly concentrated on individuals’ journalistic experiences while covering conflicts in Iraq (Kim 2010; Kim and Hama-Saeed 2008; Fahmy and Johnson 2012). In addition, extant works have focused on journalists’ perceptions of their environment and of their subsequent performance, instead of examining the actual changes in media content and coverage.…”

Caught in the Middle: Internal and External Pressures on the Coverage of Organized Crime in Mexico

“…As one of its authors (Reese, 2007) said it should be, this model has been widely used in diverse studies worldwide (e.g., Fahmy & Johnson, 2012;Kwanda & Lin, 2020;Milojević & Krstić, 2018;Xu & Jin, 2017). Regarding the Mexican case, Relly and González (2014) analyzed antipress violence in the Northern region, adding a new level to Shoemaker andReese's (1996, 2014) scheme with Intermedia Influences related to journalist networks.…”

“We always report under pressure”: Professionalism and journalistic identity among regional journalists in a conflict zone

“…Several scholars have applied the hierarchy of influences model (Shoemaker and Reese, 1996; Reese and Shoemaker, 2016) as a framework to understand influences on journalists’ role as newsmakers in different national and cultural contexts (Fahmy and Johnson, 2012; Ittefaq et al, 2021; Kim, 2010; Reese, 2001; Relly and Gonzalez de Bustamante, 2014; Ullah and Jan 2021). The hierarchy of influences model provides a framework for understanding influences on journalists’ role as newsmakers based on five levels including the individual characteristics of journalists, their work routines, organizational influences, extra-media, and social systems.…”