“…In the present study, we went beyond perceptions and documented how often and in what ways schools used the EIS and to what effect. Prior studies have described the EIS model and use in school settings (Herman, Reinke, Huang, et al, 2021; Reinke et al, 2018; Thompson et al, 2017) and demonstrated the technical adequacy of the EIS in elementary (Herman et al, 2018; Huang et al, 2019; Reinke et al, 2021, 2022; Stormont et al, 2022), middle (Herman et al, 2018; Herman, Reinke, Huang, et al, 2021; Reinke et al, 2021), and high school settings (Reinke et al, 2021; Thompson et al, 2021). Although most of these prior articles on the EIS described the rationale for the EIS development and its intended solutions to usability and social consequence concerns, the present study was the first to empirically examine the use and impact of the EIS on targeted social consequences as defined by Messick’s (1995) validity framework.…”