“…Karst water (1,975 × 10 8 m 3 /a), characterized by good water quality and high development potential, comprises nearly a quarter of the total groundwater resources in China (Liang et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2018). However, in recent decades due to climate change and human activities, the groundwater and spring discharge in the karst regions have experienced rapid changes: deteriorating groundwater quality (Barbieri et al., 2021; Mahler et al., 2021; Wu & Sun, 2016), declining groundwater levels (de Graaf et al., 2019; Gao et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2019; Sivelle et al., 2021) and drying up springs (Brkić et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2018; Messerschmid et al., 2020). Simultaneously, groundwater dynamics, which are crucial for the sustainable utilization and management of water resources, have changed (Gao et al., 2010; Kalbus et al., 2006; Unland et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2001).…”