“…Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) has the potential to substantially reduce anthropogenic CO2 emissions over the coming decades (IEA, 2016;Wilberforce et al, 2019Wilberforce et al, , 2021). However, the potential for upward migration of CO2 from deep storage to surface is of public and regulatory concern (Bacon et al, 2016;;Kharaka et al, 2006Kharaka et al, , 2010Little and Jackson, 2010;Zhang et al, 2017Zhang et al, , 2019Zheng et al, 2009). Public acceptance of geologic carbon sequestration will be gradually improved by demonstrating reliable monitoring techniques that provide assurance of long-term safety of reservoirs (Gholami et al, 2021;Van Alphen et al, 2007) and means of quantifying leakage in the event of unplanned gas escape (Holland and Gilfillan, 2013;Ju et al, 2019Ju et al, , 2020a.…”