Iron, Copper, and Zinc Homeostasis: Physiology, Physiopathology, and Nanomediated Applications

Abstract

Understanding of how the human organism functions has preoccupied researchers in medicine for a very long time. While most of the mechanisms are well understood and detailed thoroughly, medicine has yet much to discover. Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), and Zinc (Zn) are elements on which organisms, ranging from simple bacteria all the way to complex ones such as mammals, rely on these divalent ions. Compounded by the continuously evolving biotechnologies, these ions are still relevant today. This review article aims at recapping the mechanisms involved in Fe, Cu, and Zn homeostasis. By applying the knowledge and expanding on future research areas, this article aims to shine new light of existing illness. Thanks to the expanding field of nanotechnology, genetic disorders such as hemochromatosis and thalassemia can be managed today. Nanoparticles (NPs) improve delivery of ions and confer targeting capabilities, with the potential for use in treatment and diagnosis. Iron deficiency, cancer, and sepsis are persisting major issues. While targeted delivery using Fe NPs can be used as food fortifiers, chemotherapeutic agents against cancer cells and microbes have been developed using both Fe and Cu NPs. A fast and accurate means of diagnosis is a major impacting factor on outcome of patients, especially when critically ill. Good quality imaging and bed side diagnostic tools are possible using NPs, which may positively impact outcome.

Effect of Chromium Picolinate and Chromium Nanoparticles Added to Low- or High-Fat Diets on Chromium Biodistribution and the Blood Level of Selected Minerals in Rats

“…In our research, a considerable decrease in blood plasma Fe concentration followed the dietary application of CrNPs to HFD, and that effect was noted compared to all other three dietary treatments. It is well known that the blood Fe concentration largely depends on its absorption rate in the duodenum and that this element is absorbed into enterocytes mainly by divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) [Szabo et al, 2021]. According to Jiang et al [2018], DMT1 levels might be reduced significantly in the duodenum of rats following the feeding regimen on diets rich in saturated fats, pointing at DMT1 as the factor reducing duodenal iron absorption.…”

Regenerative Activities of ROS-Modulating Trace Metals in Subcutaneously Implanted Biodegradable Cryogel

“…In this work, we conducted a comparative investigation of regenerative activities of biodegradable gelatin cryogel doped with Zn, Cu or Co divalent metals as one of the most therapeutically relevant TMs [ 10 ]. Considering that TMs can participate in non-enzymatic redox-reactions, such as the Fenton-type generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) involved in cell signaling [ 27 , 28 , 29 ], the TM-doped cryogels were assessed in relation to redox-modulating and cytokine-regulating in vitro activities of the metal dopants. To charactrize in vivo regenerative activities of the TM-doped cryogels, a subcutaneous implantation model with a comprehensive histological evaluation was optimized, considering the relevance of this model for understanding fundamental effects of biomaterials on host tissue responses related to cellularization, angiogenesis, and inflammation [ 30 , 31 , 32 ].…”

Elemental Composition of Commercial Herbal Tea Plants and Respective Infusions

“…Fe, Cu, and Zn are cofactors in processes of protein synthesis, thus with a fundamental role in the functioning of many organs and systems in human physiology, beyond a multitude of functions with emphasis in heme synthesis in the case of Fe, neurotransmission in the case of Cu, and finally DNA synthesis and immune response in the case of Zn [ 37 ].…”