Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia: Implications and Impact in Pregnancy, Fetal Development, and Early Childhood Parameters

Abstract

A normal pregnancy consumes 500-800 mg of iron from the mother. Premenopausal women have a high incidence of marginal iron stores or iron deficiency (ID), with or without anemia, particularly in the less developed world. Although pregnancy is associated with a "physiologic" anemia largely related to maternal volume expansion; it is paradoxically associated with an increase in erythrocyte production and erythrocyte mass/kg. ID is a limiting factor for this erythrocyte mass expansion and can contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes. This review summarizes erythrocyte and iron balance observed in pregnancy; its implications and impact on mother and child; and provides an overview of approaches to the recognition of ID in pregnancy and its management, including clinically relevant questions for further investigation.

Iron Regulatory Mechanisms in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

“…Iron is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust, but the extremely low solubility of ferric iron (Fe 3+ ) at physiological pH has dramatically restricted its availability to living organisms. Consequently, iron deficiency anemia has become the most common nutritional disorder worldwide, affecting two billion people, particularly women, children and older adults [reviewed in Chaparro and Suchdev (2019); Means (2020)]. The same redox properties that make iron indispensable for life also lead to cytotoxicity when present at high concentrations since it participates in Fenton reactions producing hydroxyl radicals that damage cells at the DNA, lipid and protein levels.…”

Effect of germination on the nutritional profile of quinoa (Cheopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds and its anti‐anemic potential in Sprague–Dawley male albino rats

“…Similar prevalence was reported among women of reproductive age and in pregnancy, in addition to being associated with other diseases (Abdel-Rasoul et al, 2017;Rezk et al, 2015;Simbrunner et al, 2020;WHO, 2010). Iron deficiency has adverse consequences for health as a major contributor to maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality, affects productivity, work capacity, cognitive development, resistance to infection, and pregnancy in women (Helmy et al, 2018;Means, 2020).…”

From Maternal Diet to Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Story of Neuroinflammation

“…Nutrients can modulate its absorption; while vitamin C promotes iron absorption, milk and tea inhibit its absorption ( Kominiarek and Rajan, 2016 ). With the increase in blood volume as well as iron-dependent developmental mechanisms during pregnancy ( Nnam, 2015 ), iron intake is key ( Means, 2020 ). Failing to meet the iron needs can cause, in the pregnant woman, inflammation ( Gambling et al, 2002 ) among other detrimental outcomes on pregnancy ( O’Connor et al, 1988 ; Huang et al, 2001 ; Means, 2020 ).…”

“…Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency ( Stoltzfus, 2003 ). Further assessment particularly during the early life period, including pregnancy and childhood ( McCann et al, 2020 ; Means, 2020 ) is thus warranted, considering that the severity of iron deficiency may be time sensitive ( Gambling et al, 2004 ).…”