Killings of Police in U.S. Cities since 1980: An Examination of Environmental and Political Explanations

Abstract

Most research on killings of police in urban areas attempted to link lethal violence against officers to the violence and disorder in the communities they work.Yet support for this relationship is inconsistent. Fewer studies considered whether local political arrangements affect killings of police. This study attempts to remedy this gap by using recent data to investigate the relationship between the political conditions of large U.S. cities and the number of homicides of police officers in the line of duty in the years 1980, 1990, and 2000. Negative binomial regression analyses suggest that racial income inequality and the size of the Black population are positively associated with killings of police but cities with African American mayors have less killings. Police killings of citizens are also positively related to officer killings. The results largely support political explanations and uncover time-contingent effects of segregation on violence against state representatives.

Does Minority Representation in Police Agencies Reduce Assaults on the Police?

“…If the goal is to improve police-citizen interactions, then other strategies should be considered. One in particular concerns improved officer training and higher education standards (Kent 2010). Aside from our work, other studies have found that officer education is important for a number of outcomes, including fewer assaults on police, higher job performance, more flexibility, and fewer citizen complaints (Hayeslip Jr., 1989;Kaminski & Sorensen, 1995;Kappeler et al, 1992;Sterling, 1974).…”

“…Findings in this area are inconsistent, however. For example, median family income, poverty, and unemployment were not associated with killings of police in at least one study (Kent, 2010).…”

“…High levels of arrestee density, local areas with higher levels of violent crime, and concentrated disadvantage have been associated with increases in assaults on police (Kaminski et al, 2003). Similarly, Kent (2010) found that race-based income differences were among the factors that could fuel aggression against police, and violence against the police was more likely in segregated cities. Findings in this area are inconsistent, however.…”

“…For example, some studies have questioned whether certain groups with limited access to the political/administrative processes may express themselves through deviant and violent behaviors, as a reaction or protest (Jacobs & Carmichael, 2002;Kaminski & Stucky, 2009;Kent, 2010). For example, Jacobs and Carmichael (2002) argued that if minorities cannot express themselves through conventional political means, it is likely they will resort to political violence as an alternative.…”

“…For example, the probability of violence toward police as state-control agents could increase when there is a political subordination among minorities. Indeed, some studies have found that cities with African American mayors report fewer killings, which is an important political representation indicator (Jacobs & Carmichael, 2002;Kent, 2010).…”