“…Various authors have shown that carbohydrates, and speci®cally glucose, can be oxidized directly at a variety of electrode materials, including metals such as platinum [4,5], gold [5,6], copper [5, 7±9], iridium [5], rhodium [5], nickel oxide [10], tungsten oxide [11], ruthenium oxide [12] or metallic complexes such as cobalt phthalocyanine [13].…”