“…Due to the devastating consequences of the Second World War (see, for instance, Mazower, 2006, andNaar, 2016, on the devastation of the Sephardic community of Salonica), but also to such circumstances as Turkish-only language policies in the 1930s and 1940s (Gerson Şarhon, 2011) or the social prestige of the Hebrew language in Israel (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1999;Zuckermann, 2020), resulting in strong tendences within the post-war generations to switch to other, majority languages such as Turkish, Greek, Hebrew, Castilian Spanish, or English, the survival of Ladino is imperilled (Bunis, 2018;Moseley, 2010). Relatively few fluent mother-tongue speakers remain, and Ladino is now primarily spoken in family and in religious contexts (Kirschen, 2019), which entails that the language generally is not used outside quite limited settings.…”