Leaching and In Vivo Bioavailability of Antimony in PET Bottled Beverages

Abstract

Antimony (Sb) may leach from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) materials into bottled water under improper storage conditions, particularly at high temperatures, leading to potential Sb chronic exposure and adverse health effects. However, Sb leaching may be promoted by various beverage constituents, which has received limited attention to date. In addition, few studies have considered Sb bioavailability in beverages and the influence of the beverage matrix on Sb bioavailability. In this study, PET-bottled beverages (n = 50) covering six categories (namely, carbonated, fruit juices, tea, sports, protein, and coffee beverages) were explored. Antimony leaching was assessed following the incubation of beverages at 60 °C for 7 days, which resulted in Sb concentrations 1.10–10.9 times greater than concentrations observed pre-incubation. Although regulatory standards vary internationally, a total of 21 beverages exceeded the Japanese Sb drinking water standard of 2 μg/L (up to 4.08 ± 0.11 μg/L) following incubation at 60 °C. pH significantly influenced Sb leaching (r = −0.38, p = 0.007) with beverages displaying lower pH (e.g., carbonated drinks) exhibiting higher Sb concentrations. An in vivo mouse model, using the liver as the biological endpoint, was adopted to assess Sb relative bioavailability (RBA) in bottled beverages. Sb RBA ranged from 1.97–58.7% with coffee beverages exhibiting the lowest Sb RBA (1.97–13.7%) and protein drinks the highest (41.1–58.7%). Linear regression revealed that Sb RBA in beverages was negatively influenced by Fe (r = −0.69, p = 0.02) and P (r = −0.73, p = 0.01) concentrations but positively correlated with tartaric acid (r = 0.59, p = 0.02). When an exposure assessment was undertaken using data generated in this study, carbonated and protein-rich beverages exhibited a higher exposure risk due to elevated Sb leaching and high Sb RBA compared to other beverage categories.

Report of the Scientific Committee of the Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition (AESAN) on the prospection of chemical hazards of interest in food safety in Spain (2)

“…To reduce the risks associated with dietary exposure to Sb, it is necessary to conduct studies aimed at determining the transfer and bioavailability of Sb in different food matrices (Xu et al, 2021).…”

“…For its part, Xu et al (2021) studied the leaching and in vivo bioavailability of Sb in PET bottled beverages, especially when they are stored in poor conditions, finding that carbonated and protein-rich beverages exhibited a higher risk of exposure due to high leaching of Sb and the high bioavailability compared to other categories of beverages. The beverages considered were soft drinks, fruit juices, tea, sports drinks, protein drinks and coffee drinks.…”

Determination of Caffeine and Elements in Hypertonic, Isotonic, and Hypotonic Beverages

“…The presence of Sb in PET-bottled drinks could be attributed to its usage as a catalyst during the production of PET, mostly in the Sb trioxide form [48,49]. Xu et al [50] examined the leaching and bioavailability of Sb in PET-bottled beverages across six categories (carbonated, fruit juices, tea, sports, protein, and coffee beverages). They found that high temperature and low pH exposure could lead to excessive Sb leaching, 1.1-10.9 times higher than before exposure.…”

Trace elements concentrations in drinking water – is there a risk for neurological or psychiatric disorders?

“…However, an increasing number of recent analyses have indicated that Sb may be released into drinking water from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles [47,48]. Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is used in PET polymers production as a catalyst and it may leach into bottled beverages under inappropriate storage conditions, such as exposition to high temperature or sunlight [47].…”