Lead in Air, Soil, and Blood: Pb Poisoning in a Changing World

Abstract

(1) Background: Leaded petrol became a worldwide vehicle fuel during the 20th century. While leaded petrol was totally banned on 30 August 2021, its lead (Pb) dust legacy remains in the environment as soil Pb. The health impacts of Pb are well known and risks occur when exposures are above zero. The inextricable links between air Pb, soil Pb, and blood Pb are not widely A. Exposure risks continue even after banning leaded petrol and must be explored. (2) Methods: This article evaluates selected examples of temporal measurements of atmospheric Pb and human Pb exposure and the effect of soil Pb on blood Pb. Several search engines were used to find articles on temporal changes in air Pb and human Pb exposures. New Orleans studies provided empirical data on the association between soil Pb and blood Pb. (3) Results: Vehicle Pb emission trends are closely associated with air Pb and blood Pb. Air Pb deposited in soil becomes a reservoir of Pb dust that is known to be remobilized into the atmosphere. (4) Conclusions: The dust from leaded petrol continues to pose major exposure risks to humans. Exogenous sources of Pb in soil and its remobilization into air along with endogenous bone Pb establish the baseline exposure of children and adults. Reducing human exposure to Pb requires novel policies to decrease exogenous contact from the reservoir of Pb in soil and curtailing remobilization of soil Pb into the atmosphere. Mitigating exposure to soil Pb must therefore play a central role in advancing primary prevention.

Novel Policies are Required to Reduce Pediatric Lead Exposure from Legacy Lead (Pb) in Soil and Air

“…The average blood lead level for people aged 1-74 years in the U.S. decreased by 78%, from 12•8 μg/dL to 2•8 μg/dL between 1976 and 1991 13 . Similar trends were noted in Sweden and Germany 11 . Phase-outs were slow to be adopted in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) 3 , but by August 30, 2021, nearly a century after Henderson's statements, leaded petrol for highway use was finally banned worldwide 14 .…”

“…The U.S. rapid phasedown of leaded petrol 10 began on January 1, 1986. The ensuing national bans of the use of leaded petrol resulted in decreases in children's blood Pb in countries around the world 11,12 . Although major advances in primary prevention have been made, data from around the world indicates that the baseline urban population-level air Pb exposures are still too high, plateauing at around 2 ug/dL 11 .…”

“…The ensuing national bans of the use of leaded petrol resulted in decreases in children's blood Pb in countries around the world 11,12 . Although major advances in primary prevention have been made, data from around the world indicates that the baseline urban population-level air Pb exposures are still too high, plateauing at around 2 ug/dL 11 . The average blood lead level for people aged 1-74 years in the U.S. decreased by 78%, from 12•8 μg/dL to 2•8 μg/dL between 1976 and 1991 13 .…”

Chronic Pb Exposure Induces Anxiety and Depression-like Behaviors in Mice via Excitatory Neuronal Hyperexcitability in Ventral Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus

“…Pb is a widespread environmental contaminant and induces neurotoxicity. − There is a growing body of literature on the effects of Pb on anxiety and depression. It has been documented that early-life low-level Pb exposure alters anxiety-like behaviors in mice .…”

Direct Environmental Lead Detection by Photoluminescent Perovskite Formation with Nanogram Sensitivity

“…The chemical element lead is toxic: short-term exposure to a low dosage of lead can inflict permanent damage with immediate danger for life and health. − Lead poisoning is most harmful for young children and can cause lifelong severe health problems, ranging from decreasing neurological and cognitive functions such as loss of IQ, behavioral problems, aggression, and learning disabilities, to severe physical illnesses such as blindness, convulsions, and death. − Due to the omnipresence of lead in our environmentranging from water pipes, cables and paints, to glassware, jewelry, electronics, mining and recycling, UNICEF estimates that more than one out of three children worldwide (800 million children) suffer from lead poisoning, and the cost of lead poisoning is estimated at 6.9% of the Gross National Product every year. − Moreover, unlike organic pollutants, lead is not degradable and can therefore remain present to inflict harm for decades or longer. − …”