Lead, Mercury, and Cadmium Exposure in the Korean General Population

Abstract

BackgroundLead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd) are well-known environmental pollutants. They are unnecessary in the biological processes of humans. This study was performed to estimate the representative background exposure levels to the metals by measuring concentrations in whole blood of the Korean general population.MethodsThis population-based cross-sectional study included 4,000 subjects (1,886 males and 2,114 females) 0–83 years of age in 2010 and 2011. Adult subjects (≥ 19 years of age) were collected by sex- and age-stratified probability method, and preschool- and school-aged subjects were recruited by a cluster sampling method. Written consent was provided prior to blood sampling. Pb and Cd blood concentrations were determined by a flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and blood Hg was analyzed by a direct Hg analyzer.ResultsThe geometric mean, median and 95th percentile of blood Pb was 1.82 µg/dL, 1.83 µg/dL, and 3.78 µg/dL, respectively. The respective values were 2.92 µg/L, 2.87 µg/L, 9.12 µg/L for Hg, and 0.56 µg/L, 0.59 µg/L, 2.20 µg/L for Cd. Blood Pb and Hg were higher in males than in females, but no sex difference was observed, respectively, in subjects 0–4 years of age for Pb and in subjects less than 20 years for Hg. However, blood Cd was higher in females than in males and no sex difference was observed in subjects < 30 years of age.ConclusionThis study provides representative data of human exposure to Pb, Hg, and Cd covering whole age groups of the general population in Korea.

Associations between blood lead, cadmium, and mercury levels with hyperuricemia in the Korean general population: A retrospective analysis of population‐based nationally representative data

“…Based on a previous study, blood lead, cadmium, and mercury levels of the Korean population have also decreased from 2.61 μg/dL, 1.52 μg/L, and 4.19 μg/L to 1.99 μg/dL, 0.86 μg/L, and 3.08 μg/L, respectively, over 6 years (from 2005 to 2011) . In this study, although the serum level of lead was slightly lower than the value reported in the past, the levels of cadmium and mercury exposure were not significantly different from those reported in previous studies …”

Association of Blood Pressure with Blood Lead and Cadmium Levels in Korean Adolescents: Analysis of Data from the 2010–2016 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

“…The CdB level was not reported for those aged 12–19 years in the U.S. NHANES study, because many of the results were below the limit of detection; however, it is likely that our subjects had higher CdB levels that U.S. adolescents because Korean adults have higher CdB levels than U.S. adults. 20 Previous studies have reported higher CdB levels in female adults than male adults, 21 24 but we found no sex differences in Korean adolescents. Our findings that older adolescents and smokers had higher CdB levels are consistent with previous reports.…”

“…In the present study, PbB level declined with increasing age among adolescents, in agreement with previous studies. 18 20 24 Increased biological need for iron among children, which also increase lead absorption and then PbB level, return to normal level in adolescents, and thus showing decreasing tendency of PbB concentration in adolescents. However, PbB concentration increases with age since late adolescents.…”

“…Our findings that older adolescents and smokers had higher CdB levels are consistent with previous reports. 18 21 24 26 Moon et al 27 studied the general population of Korea and found that diet was the main source of cadmium exposure, but cigarette smoking is also a well-known source of cadmium exposure. 26 Several previous studies of Asian populations found that CdB levels were higher in subjects from northeastern Asia (Korea, Japan, and China) than in Western countries, possibly because of the lower consumption of rice in the West.…”

Association of Blood Mercury Level with the Risk of Depression According to Fish Intake Level in the General Korean Population: Findings from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2008–2013

“…According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 1999-2002, blood mercury levels in females are higher in Asians than in Europeans [45]. According to a cross-sectional study on the Korean general population, the mean concentration of total mercury was 2.92 µg/L, and was significantly higher in males (3.11 µg/L) than in females (2.77 µg/L) [46]. Blood mercury in Korean subjects was 3.7-5 times higher than in Germans (0.58 µg/L), Americans (0.70 µg/L), and Canadians (0.79 µg/L) [47][48][49].…”