Lead: properties, history, and applications

Abstract

Lead is a chemical element with the atomic number 82 and the symbol Pb (from the Latin plumbum). It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, lead is silvery with a hint of blue; it tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and concludes three major decay chains of heavier elements. Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal. Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and its oxides react with acids and bases, and it tends to form covalent bonds. Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group. Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds. Like the lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself; it can form chains, rings and polyhedral structures. Lead is easily extracted from its ores; prehistoric people in Western Asia knew of it. Galena, a principal ore of lead, often bears silver, interest in which helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome. Lead production declined after the fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution. In 2014, annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction, plumbing, batteries, bullets and shot, weights, solders, pewters, fusible alloys, white paints, leaded gasoline, and radiation shielding.

Melatonin salvages lead‐induced neuro‐cognitive shutdown, anxiety, and depressive‐like symptoms via oxido‐inflammatory and cholinergic mechanisms

“…(Beyersmann & Hartwig, 2008). In some cases, it inhibits the absorption of important trace minerals necessary for neuronal survival and its involvement in direct formation of ROS while interrupting enzyme activity (Boldyrev, 2018;Patrick, 2006). All these evidences compromise the neuronal architecture that triggers hippocampal damages which gradually lead to loss of neuronal functions, decrease in synaptic activities and spatial F I G U R E 7 Graphical abstract illustrating the probable pathways through which melatonin supplementation targeted lead-induced neuro-cognitive shutdown, anxiety and depressive-like symptoms learning and memory impairments (cognitive deficits) as a result to neurodegeneration (Farkas et al, 2007;White et al, 2007).…”

“…This result correlates with reported studies showing maximal level of lead accumulation occurring significantly in the hippocampal region of the brain causing structural damage to the brain cell components through elevated oxidative stress and inhibition of DNA repairs (Beyersmann & Hartwig, 2008). In some cases, it inhibits the absorption of important trace minerals necessary for neuronal survival and its involvement in direct formation of ROS while interrupting enzyme activity (Boldyrev, 2018; Patrick, 2006). All these evidences compromise the neuronal architecture that triggers hippocampal damages which gradually lead to loss of neuronal functions, decrease in synaptic activities and spatial learning and memory impairments (cognitive deficits) as a result to neurodegeneration (Farkas et al., 2007; White et al., 2007).…”

Functionalised electrospun membranes (TETA-PVC) for the removal of lead(ii) from water

“…10–12 Lead is abundantly found in nature possessing unique features, such as softness, malleability, ductility, low melting point, and resistance to corrosion, which resulted in its extensive use in different industries. 13–15 However, exposure to lead is known to cause several health problems such as coma, cancer, renal failure, and could also damage the central nervous system leading to permanent cognitive impairment. 12,16 The US Environmental Potential Agency (US EPA) indicated that the maximum allowable level of lead in drinking water is 15 μg L −1 .…”

EFFICACY OF Nigella sativa OIL TO RELIEVE EFFECTS OF THE LEAD MONOXIDE TOXICITY ON TESTICULAR EFFICIENCY AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR DISORDERS IN ALBINO RATS

“…Heavy metals are associated with many diseases in both humans and animals, such as immunotoxicity, changed sex hormone balance, impaired reproductive systems (low fertility), mental retardation, changed metabolism, and behavioural abnormalities (Wu et al, 2016). Lead monoxide (PbO) is a hazardous metal to humans and different ecosystems, as it is used in various industries such as paints, glass, ceramics, and batteries (Boldyrev, 2018). Humans are exposed to metals mainly by inhaling dust and fumes or by consuming contaminated water and food (Cobbina et al, 2015).…”