Leader cognition in real-world settings: How do leaders think about crises?

A framework for examining leadership in extreme contexts

“…These rich schemata can facilitate processing future extreme events more quickly and effortlessly and be relied upon until an event presents stimuli that are considered nonroutine that must be interpreted using a more controlled processing framework (Fiske, 1991). Thus as more responses to potential extreme events are practiced, greater complexity will be formed in relevant schemas for individuals (Hannah, Woolfolk, & Lord, 2009;Mumford, Friedrich, Caughron, & Byrne, 2007;Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000) and ultimately group mental models (Hannah, Eggers, & Jennings, 2008), promoting naturalistic decision making (Drillings & Serfaty, 1997). Weick (1988) draws from Shrivastava's (1987) concept of triggering events in extreme contexts, which are discernable events that can be linked back to specific acts of human judgment and that can deteriorate under pressure (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981).…”

Measuring the Efficacy of Leaders to Assess Information and Make Decisions in a Crisis: The C-LEAD Scale

“…For instance, we would expect that many of the basic skills of transformational leadership (e.g., creating vision and inspiring others) would be also important in a crisis context (Evans, et al, 2001). However, compared to ordinary circumstances, the importance of decision making is magnified during crisis and it is more challenging (Mumford, et al, 2007). As Sommer and Pearson (2007) note (citing Parry, 1990), "A crisis affects cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects that constrain rationality and cause greater vulnerability than in normal, non-crisis states" (p. 1237).…”

“…The core elements that define a crisis-ambiguity, urgency, and high stakes-also severely constrain the ability of individuals to assess information and make decisions effectively (Boin, et al, 2005;Mumford, Friedrich, Caughron, & Byrne, 2007;Pearson & Clair, 1998). As Dutton (1986) notes, it is difficult and perhaps even impossible to achieve a full and complete understanding of the nature, underlying reasons, influence mechanisms, and consequences involved in a crisis.…”

“…In addition, because leaders in crisis situations are under severe time pressure, they often have less time to acquire, secure, and process information effectively (e.g., Halverson, et al, 2004;Quarantelli, 1988). Furthermore, the life and death stakes involved in the situation are only likely to amplify the sense of time pressure and its desultory effects upon information exploration and decision processing (Mumford, et al, 2007;Sayegh, Anthony, & Perrewe, 2004;Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981). Therefore, the inherent demands of a public health and safety crisis are likely to severely constrain an individual's ability to assess information and make decisions successfully.…”

Leaders and Heroes: Modern Day Archetypes

“…Archetypes may reduce the necessity to learn new information by providing a pre-existing framework of information, assumptions and responses similar to case-based knowledge (see Mumford, Friedrich, Caughron & Byrne, 2007). The production of such images can be seen as an adaptive mechanism that provides a set of understanding.…”