“Learned Helplessness,” “Learned Hopefulness,” and “Learned Obsessiveness”: Effects of Varying. Contingencies on Escape Responding

Abstract

Two types of outcome appearing in most research on learned helplessness were studied. Subjects performing under an extinction, i.e., non-occurring, programmed outcome evidenced “learned helplessness.” Contrary to learned helplessness theory, however, most subjects given response-independent outcomes developed superstitious behavior and reported perceived control of events. Subjects in a third group whose responses were reinforced during a 50-trial “training” phase showed response “excesses” during 10 subsequent “test” trials. These results have important implications for the theory of learned helplessness and the relevance of laboratory phenomena to human behavioral disorders.

Superstitious Rule Generation is Affected by Probability and Type of Outcome

“…He reported that under mixed random or mixed fixed reinforcement schedules, participants believed that their presses effectively prevented the tones. Similarly, Stegman and McReynolds (1978) reported that 6 of 10 people exposed to response-independent presentations of an aversive tone developed a superstitious belief that pressing a button eliminated the noxious stimulus. Very little research has examined superstition formation resulting from noncontingent delivery of punishment because such a procedure frequently produces learned helplessness (Maier & Seligman, 1976).…”

Effect of response-independent delivery of positive and negative reinforcers on the development of superstitious behavior and belief in humans.

“…Although there have been more studies utilizing response independent delivery of putative positive reinforcers (e.g., Ono, 1987), superstitious behavior and belief can be produced by response-independent removal or prevention of an aversive stimulus or loss of a reinforcer (e.g., Cerutti, 1991; Matute, 1994, 1995; Stegman & McReynolds, 1978). According to Aeschleman, Rosen, and Williams (2003), many examples of superstitious behavior in humans appear to involve avoidance (e.g., knocking on wood to ward off bad luck).…”