Learning from a provisioning site: code of conduct compliance and behaviour of whale sharks in Oslob, Cebu, Philippines

Abstract

While shark-based tourism is a rapidly growing global industry, there is ongoing controversy about the effects of provisioning on the target species. This study investigated the effect of feeding on whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) at a provisioning site in Oslob, Cebu, in terms of arrival time, avoidance and feeding behaviour using photo-identification and focal follows. Additionally, compliance to the code of conduct in place was monitored to assess tourism pressure on the whale sharks. Newly identified sharks gradually arrived earlier to the provisioning site after their initial sighting, indicating that the animals learn to associate the site with food rewards. Whale sharks with a long resighting history showed anticipatory behaviour and were recorded at the site on average 5 min after the arrival of feeder boats. Results from a generalised linear mixed model indicated that animals with a longer resighting history were less likely to show avoidance behaviour to touches or boat contact. Similarly, sequential data on feeding behaviour was modelled using a generalised estimating equations approach, which suggested that experienced whale sharks were more likely to display vertical feeding behaviour. It was proposed that the continuous source of food provides a strong incentive for the modification of behaviours, i.e., learning, through conditioning. Whale sharks are large opportunistic filter feeders in a mainly oligotrophic environment, where the ability to use novel food sources by modifying their behaviour could be of great advantage. Non-compliance to the code of conduct in terms of minimum distance to the shark (2 m) increased from 79% in 2012 to 97% in 2014, suggesting a high tourism pressure on the whale sharks in Oslob. The long-term effects of the observed behavioural modifications along with the high tourism pressure remain unknown. However, management plans are traditionally based on the precautionary principle, which aims to take preventive actions even if data on cause and effect are still inconclusive. Hence, an improved enforcement of the code of conduct coupled with a reduction in the conditioning of the whale sharks through provisioning were proposed to minimise the impacts on whale sharks in Oslob.

Assessing the impacts of tourism on the world's largest fish Rhincodon typus at Panaon Island, Southern Leyte, Philippines

“…Though the benefits of marine wildlife interactions can be substantial, a key aspect for consideration in such an industry is the potential impacts on the host species. In sharks, mixed results appear to suggest that potential impacts are site‐, species‐ and context‐specific (Gallagher et al, ), though employing the precautionary principle is recommended when engaging with endangered marine wildlife (Schleimer et al, ).…”

Feeding wild fish for tourism—A systematic quantitative literature review of impacts and management

“…Visitor education, on understanding the rules and the outcomes of their actions, can be implemented to foster conservation awareness. (Elias, Kasem, & Khairy, 2016;Richards et al, 2015;Schleimer et al, 2015).…”

Manta ray tourism management, precautionary strategies for a growing industry: a case study from the Ningaloo Marine Park, Western Australia

“…Although the expansion of such tourism industries has the potential to significantly boost and diversify local economies (Mansperger 1995;Cater and Cater 2008), typically there are significant problems with the design and implementation of effective management strategies (Quiros 2007;Schleimer et al 2015). Longitudinal data are of great importance when assessing the impact of tourism on focal species.…”

“…Longitudinal data are of great importance when assessing the impact of tourism on focal species. In the interest of minimising impacts on a global scale, locations that have well established tourism industries and long-term datasets are ideal sites to develop management frameworks that can be applied to similar wildlife tourism sites across the globe (see Bejder et al 2006;Schleimer et al 2015).…”