Learning How to Throw Darts. Effects of Modeling Type and Reflection on Novices’ Dart-Throwing Skills

Abstract

In this study, we investigated the effects of modeling type and reflection on the acquisition of dart-throwing skills, self-efficacy beliefs and self-reaction scores by conceptually replicating a study by Kitsantas, Zimmerman, and Cleary (2000). Participants observing a novice model were expected to surpass participants observing an expert model who in turn were expected to outperform participants who learned without a model. Reflection was hypothesized to have a positive effect. 156 High school and university students were tested three times: in a pretest, after a modeling intervention, and after a practice round. Contrary to what was expected, we found no main effects of modeling type and reflection. No interaction effects were found either. There was an effect of testing moment, indicating that participants improved dart-throwing skills, self-efficacy beliefs, and self-reaction scores over time.With these findings, we are not able to replicate Kitsantas et al. From our study, we conclude that observational learning, irrespective of the model's skill level, combined with physical practice, yields similar results as mere physical practice. Lay SummaryM astering a motor skill, such as dart throwing, is often done by practicing darts, observing someone else playing darts or a combination of observing and practicing. In our study, we find no differences between students who learn by observation combined with physical practice and those who merely practiced.

The Best of Two Different Visual Instructions in Improving Precision Ball-Throwing and Standing Long Jump Performances in Primary School Children

“…The experiments were performed in a large, quiet room [ 22 , 54 ], where only the principal investigator and a research assistant were available [ 2 ]. There was no time limit for any of the conditions, as participants performed at their preferred speed [ 55 ].…”

“…The use of visual cues and instructions has been shown to be beneficial for enhancing motor performances [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In particular, visual instructions serve an important role in motor learning, encouraging the acquisition of motor skills without the time-consuming process of trial-and-error learning [ 1 , 7 ].…”

“…In particular, visual instructions serve an important role in motor learning, encouraging the acquisition of motor skills without the time-consuming process of trial-and-error learning [ 1 , 7 ]. Furthermore, visual instructions allow the learner to construct a mental representation of the desired performance, break the whole task into subcomponents, select essential information, and configurate appropriate strategies to reconstruct the task, ultimately leading to a more efficient performance [ 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. In this regard, the process of learning a task by watching someone else performing this task is defined as observational learning [ 2 ].…”

“…Furthermore, visual instructions allow the learner to construct a mental representation of the desired performance, break the whole task into subcomponents, select essential information, and configurate appropriate strategies to reconstruct the task, ultimately leading to a more efficient performance [ 1 , 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. In this regard, the process of learning a task by watching someone else performing this task is defined as observational learning [ 2 ]. Observing a model serves an important function in human motor development, as the learner benefits from the activation of a matching motor program by direct perceptual-motor mapping [ 1 , 7 ].…”

“…Conversely, other research has shown that instructions that were related to the movement technique enhanced body cognition, motor performance, and motor learning compared to instructions that were not technique-related [ 6 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Instead, Krajenbrink et al [ 24 ] and van der Loo et al [ 2 ] argued that, ultimately, motor learning is allowed by the experience the subject undergoes during the process of repeated practice, regardless of the nature of the instructions. Though these approaches have their own merits, a direct comparison between the “technique-focus” and the “goal-focus” fragmented strategies of observational learning is still lacking.…”