Length control of long cell protrusions: rulers, timers and transport

Abstract

A living cell uses long tubular appendages for locomotion and sensory purposes. Hence, assembling and maintaining a protrusion of correct length is crucial for its survival and overall performance. Usually the protrusions lack the machinery for the synthesis of building blocks and imports them from the cell body. What are the unique features of the transport logistics which facilitate the exchange of these building blocks between the cell and the protrusion? What kind of 'rulers' and 'timers' does the cell use for constructing its appendages of correct length on time? How do the multiple appendages coordinate and communicate among themselves during different stages of their existence? How frequently do the fluctuations drive the length of these dynamic protrusions out of the acceptable bounds? These questions are addressed from a broad perspective in this review which is organized in three parts. In part-I the list of all known cell protrusions is followed by a comprehensive list of the mechanisms of length control of cell protrusions reported in the literature. We review not only the dynamics of the genesis of the protrusions, but also their resorption and regrowth as well as regeneration after amputation. As a case study in part-II, the specific cell protrusion that has been discussed in detail is eukaryotic flagellum (also known as cilium); this choice was dictated by the fact that flagellar length control mechanisms have been studied most extensively over more than half a century in cells with two or more flagella. Although limited in scope, brief discussions on a few non-flagellar cell protrusions in part-III of this review is intended to provide a glimpse of the uncharted territories and challenging frontiers of research on subcellular length control phenomena that awaits vigorous investigations.

Coupling dynamics of 2D Notch-Delta signalling

“…In another case, Pilus, which is a bacterial protrusion, keeps elongating and retracting with velocities in between pauses (Koch et al, 2021), and so the length dynamics can be described by a three-state Markov process. Further details on the physics of filopodial protrusions can be found in Mogilner and Rubinstein (2005); Patra and Chowdhury (2020) and an extensive discussion on length control of long cell protrusions of various types was presented in Patra et al (2022).…”