Leptospirosis in the Caribbean: a literature review

Abstract

Objective. To describe leptospirosis epidemiology, seroprevalence, and serovars among humans and animals in the Caribbean from 1979 – 2013 . Methods. A retrospective study of the literature was performed on the general epidemiology, historical records, and geographical locations of leptospirosis outbreaks and cases in the Caribbean from 1979 — 2013. The primary sources of information were identified with PubMed Central, Google Scholar, CAREC, CaribVET, and The School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of the West Indies. Search terms used were: “human leptospirosis,” “animal leptospirosis,” “serovars,” “livestock,” “seroprevalence,” “Caribbean countries,” “risk factors,” “confirmed cases,” “suspected cases,” “MAT,” and “ELISA.” Confirmed and suspected cases of human and animal leptospirosis were identified through laboratory analysis . Results. Most cases of leptospirosis occurred during the rainy season (June — December) and had a positive correlation with flood conditions. The disease was more prevalent in males than females due to behavioral and occupational exposure. The highest incidence rates of human leptospirosis were recorded in Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica. In animals, leptospirosis has been found in rodents, livestock, and dogs in many Caribbean countries. Inadequate active surveillance and misdiagnosis of human leptospirosis has contributed to under-reporting of the disease . Conclusion. This review highlights the epidemiology and distribution of leptospirosis in the Caribbean. Prevalence rates and serovars vary greatly among the countries. Leptospirosis poses a significant health risk for humans and animals in the Caribbean and requires a “One Health” multisectoral approach to reduce incidence rates and protect at-risk individuals. Increased laboratory capacity to identify leptospirosis cases is required, along with awareness campaigns for both the public and animal and human health professionals .

Epidemiology of human leptospirosis in Saint Lucia, 2010–2017

“…Based on our findings, leptospirosis in Saint Lucia is a seasonal disease with more cases occurring in the latter months of the wet season. This finding is consistent with previous observations made in the Caribbean ( 19 , 25 , 26 ). The Atlantic hurricane season runs from 1 June to 30 November within the rainy season.…”

“…The United Nations Statistics Division recommends that this classification be left to individual countries to develop ( 24 ); therefore, the association between the increased occurrence of leptospirosis in rural settings can be made. While persons living in rural communities have been shown to be at greater risk of becoming infected, exposure of the general population to high seasonal rainfall and associated flooding likely contributes to increased risk ( 25 ).…”

Phylogenetic relationships and diversity of bat-associated Leptospira and the histopathological evaluation of these infections in bats from Grenada, West Indies

“…Between 2008 and 2014, Grenada reported from two to 22 cases of human leptospirosis annually [23]. This likely reflects a small fraction of actual infections, as most cases of leptospirosis in humans, regardless of geographic area, are not confirmed or reported [24,25]. Humans and animals in Grenada have tested seropositive for at least 17 serotypes of Leptospira.…”

From Science to Science-based: Using State-of-the-Art Climate Information to Strengthen DRR in Small Island States

“…In addition, health issues that are related to extreme climate events and rapid urbanisation (e.g. Leptospirosis) are on the rise (Peters et al 2017).…”