Levels of Perfluorinated Chemicals in Municipal Drinking Water from Catalonia, Spain: Public Health Implications

Abstract

In this study, the concentrations of 13 perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) (PFBuS, PFHxS, PFOS, THPFOS, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFTDA, and PFOSA) were analyzed in municipal drinking water samples collected at 40 different locations from 5 different zones of Catalonia, Spain. Detection limits ranged between 0.02 (PFHxS) and 0.85 ng/L (PFOA). The most frequent compounds were PFOS and PFHxS, which were detected in 35 and 31 samples, with maximum concentrations of 58.1 and 5.30 ng/L, respectively. PFBuS, PFHxA, and PFOA were also frequently detected (29, 27, and 26 samples, respectively), with maximum levels of 69.4, 8.55, and 57.4 ng/L. In contrast, PFDoDA and PFTDA could not be detected in any sample. The most contaminated water samples were found in the Barcelona Province, whereas none of the analyzed PFCs could be detected in two samples (Banyoles and Lleida), and only one PFC could be detected in four of the samples. Assuming a human water consumption of 2 L/day, the maximum daily intake of PFOS and PFOA from municipal drinking water would be, for a subject of 70 kg of body weight, 1.7 and 1.6 ng/kg/day. This is clearly lower than the respective Tolerable Daily Intake set by the European Food Safety Authority. In all samples, PFOS and PFOA also showed lower levels than the short-term provisional health advisory limit for drinking water (200 ng PFOS/L and 400 ng PFOA/L) set by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Although PFOS and PFOA concentrations found in drinking water in Catalonia are not expected to pose human health risks, safety limits for exposure to the remaining PFCs are clearly necessary, as health-based drinking water concentration protective for lifetime exposure is set to 40 ng/L for PFOA.

Perfluorinated Compounds’ Analysis, Environmental Fate and Occurrence: The Llobregat River as Case Study

“…These results were in agreement with a previous work carried out by Ericson et al [39,57] who studied the presence of these contaminants in drinking water from different areas of Catalonia. In the study performed by Ericson et al, the concentrations of PFCs were in the range between 0.02 and 69 ng/L in tap waters.…”

“…Broadly, good recoveries were reported using Oasis WAX-SPE cartridges including short-chain (C 4 -C 6 ) compound. These cartridges have been applied in many monitoring studies [39,57,58]. For longer-chain PFCs, less polar phases (C 18 and Oasis HLB) may be applied [59][60][61].…”

Characterisation of human exposure pathways to perfluorinated compounds — Comparing exposure estimates with biomarkers of exposure

“…However, higher concentrations have been observed in areas with high industrial activity Dust Air Diet Human Dermal contact (Ericson et al 2009), near facilities manufacturing fluoropolymers (Emmett et al 2006) and in an area where a contaminated soil conditioner had been applied on agricultural land (Hölzer et al 2008). …”

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) affects hormone receptor activity, steroidogenesis, and expression of endocrine‐related genes in vitro and in vivo

“…They have been identified in various environmental sectors, including air, soil, river water [3], dust [4], and even remote polar areas [5]. Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is a stable degradation product or metabolite, or both, of many PFCs.…”