Life Cycle Assessment of the Cultivation Processes for the Main Vegetable Crops in Southern Egypt

Abstract

Due to the increasing concern about climate change and environmental sustainability, the investigation of energy consumption represents a very intriguing and undeniable subject. This study was directed to investigate energy footprints, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and life cycle assessment (LCA) of the main vegetable crops cultivated under open field conditions in southern Egypt. Potato production required the maximum energy amount (112.3 GJ/ha) compared to 76 GJ and 96 GJ for onion and tomato, respectively. Based on energy indices, potato gave (energy ratio > 1; energy productivity > 1; energy profitability > 1; net energy > 0), while onion and tomato production shared the same indicators (energy ratio < 1; energy productivity > 1; energy profitability < 0; net energy < 0). However, GHG emissions generated for producing one ton of potato tubers registered the least amount by 76.0 kg CO2 eq. The same GHG amount was produced by 834 kg of onion bulbs and 940.6 kg of tomato fruits. The emission rates were more a consequence of diesel, followed by inorganic fertilizer and manure. In addition to carbon emissions, every production process causes several other environmental problems, thus a comprehensive analysis of environmental impact categories is required. The openLCA program performed LCA and ten impact categories were considered to transform the inventory data into several indicators. Producing one ton of potato tubers has the least footprint on the environment and the ecosystem, such as global warming (GW)—238.8 kg CO2 eq. t−1; human toxicity (HT)—288.3 kg 1,4-DB eq. t−1; fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity (FAEF)—160.44 kg 1,4-DB eq. t−1); marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAET)—365,636 kg 1,4-DB eq. t−1); and terrestrial ecotoxicity (TE)—1.18 kg 1,4-DB eq. t−1). The analyses indicated that machinery and diesel fuel had the highest impact on all the studied categories.

Energy Analysis for Global Berry Fruit Production

“…Animals were exclusively employed in Iliam, Iran [29]. With a maximum value of 4530.50 MJ/ha in the Sohag Governate (Egypt), farmyard manure was typically used in many locations [30]. The diesel/oil energy input reached 110,817.15 MJ/ha in Grate Lake, USA [8], compared to 788.34 MJ/ha in Hamadan, Iran [31].…”

“…In some countries, there were no water usage, but it reached its highest value, with 23,991.42 MJ/ha, in West Azerbeyjan (Iran) [34]. Energy inputs in grape production in West Azerbayjan (Iran) [34], Qazvin (Iran) (Traditional) [35], Qazvin (Iran) (Semi-mechanized) [35], Zanjan (Iran) [36], Sohag Governorate (Egypt) [30], California (USA) (1st, 2nd, 3rd Year, Production) [8], Washington (USA) [8], Great Lake (3rd Year, Production) [8], Hamadan (Iran) (2011 [37] and 2014 [31]), Tehran (Iran) [38], Fars (Iran) [32], East Azarbayjan (Iran) [39], Illiam (Iran) [29], China [28], Tehran (Iran) [33], [Average (World) [40].…”

“…Percentages of energy inputs in grape production in Nevsehir [22], Adiyaman (Organic) [27], Antalya (Greenhouse & Open Field) [21], Ege Region (Organic & Conventional) [23], Siirt [26], Manisa [25] and Trakya Region [24] in Türkiye. Percentages of energy inputs in grape production in West Azerbayjan (Iran) [34], Qazvin (Iran) (Traditional) [35], Qazvin (Iran) (Semi-mechanized) [35], Zanjan (Iran) [36], Sohag Governorate (Egypt) [30], California (USA) (1st, 2nd, 3rd Year, Production) [8], Washington (USA) [8], Great Lake (3rd Year, Production) [8], Hamadan (Iran) (2011 [37] and 2014 [31]), Tehran (Iran) [38], Fars (Iran) [32], East Azarbayjan (Iran) [39], Illiam (Iran) [29], China [28], Tehran (Iran) [33], [Average (World) [40].…”

“…Using pruning could also improve the energy efficiency in all the examined countries. [34], Qazvin (Iran) (Traditional) [35], Qazvin (Iran) (Semi-mechanized) [35], Zanjan (Iran) [36], Sohag Governorate (Egypt) [30], California (USA) (1st, 2nd, 3rd Year, Production) [8], Washington (USA) [8], Great Lake (3rd Year, Production) [8], Hamadan (Iran) (2011 [37] and 2014 [31]), Tehran (Iran) [38], Fars (Iran) [32], East Azarbayjan (Iran) [39], Illiam (Iran) [29], China [28], Tehran (Iran) [33], [Average (World) [40]. [34], Qazvin (Iran) (Traditional) [35], Qazvin (Iran) (Semi-mechanized) [35], Zanjan (Iran) [36], Sohag Governorate (Egypt) [30], California (USA) (1st, 2nd, 3rd Year, Production) [8], Washington (USA) [8], Great Lake (3rd Year, Production) [8], Hamadan (Iran) (2011 [37] and 2014 [31]), Tehran (Iran) [38], Fars (Iran) [32], East Azarbayjan (Iran) [39], Illiam (Iran) [29], China [28], Tehran (Iran) [33], [Average (World) [40].…”

Ameliorating Forage Crop Resilience in Dry Steppe Zone Using Millet Growth Dynamics

“…The impacts of climate change on agriculture are becoming more apparent worldwide [1]. Climate change negatively affects plants in low-latitude countries, which receive more short-wave radiation, while the effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative [2].…”